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Logical predictions about relationships between school aptitude and standardized achievement, aptitude and teachers' grades, and teachers' grades and standardized achievement can be made from the literature. These predictions are that (1) conventional school aptitude measures should predict standardized achievement test scores equally well for boys and girls but better for advantaged than disadvantaged children; (2) teachers' marks are more accurate for girls than for boys when judged against the sexes' standardized achievement test scores; are more accurate for middle-class than for disadvantaged children; and are least accurate for disadvantaged black males; and (3) teachers consistently give girls higher grades than boys but there are no important differences between boys' and girls' achievement when measured by standard achievement tests. The present study was conducted to test the strength of the relationships between pupil aptitude, standardized achievement and teachers' grades and to determine the percent of variance in grade point average accounted for by aptitude and standardized achievement in a representative sample of fifth- and ninth-grade Mexican-American, Black and Anglo students. (Author/RC)

Since Hall and Sandler's original work on the chilly classroom climate for women, which was published in 1982 by the Project on the Status and Education of Women of the Association of American Colleges, there has been much controversy and debate about its existence. Critics point out that the original work was nothing more than a literature review, no data were collected, and much of the information presented was anecdotal in nature. Proponents of the existence of the chilly climate maintain that women are, in fact, treated differently from men both in and out of the classroom, and this differential treatment negatively impacts their performance in college. Over the past 20 years, empirical research on the chilly climate for women has yielded conflicting results. While some authors have focused exclusively on the classroom environment, others have included the campus environment as well. This review of literature on the chilly climate for women includes a historical overview of the major reports and studies that substantiate its existence as well as data that refute it, and the various tools that have been used for measuring chilly climate. (Contains 20 references.) (Author/SM)

This report is the result of the first investigation by an independent body of a problem that has plagued the U.S. Air Force Academy for at least a decade, and possibly since the admission of women in 1976. At the direction of Congress, the Secretary of Defense appointed seven U.S. citizens with expertise in the military academies, behavioral and psychological sciences, and standards and practices related to proper treatment of sexual assault victims. It is clear from the review of nearly a decade of efforts to solve the problem of sexual assault at the U.S. Air Force Academy that the common failure in each of the efforts was the absence of sustained attention to the problem and follow-up on the effectiveness of the solution. Between 1993 and 2002, there were 142 allegations of sexual assault at the Academy, an average of more than 14 allegations each year. In addition, a survey in May 2003 showed that 80.8% of females who said that they had been victims of sexual assault did not report the incident. Information from a variety of sources shows that the responses of Academy and Air Force leadership have been inconsistent and have lacked a long-term plan to address the institutional culture that does not condemn sexual harassment or assault sufficiently. Another recent indicator of the problem is that one in five male cadets responding to a survey did not believe that women belong at the Academy. A new leadership team that took office in April 2003 has begun implementing changes in the Academy's institutional culture, military training, living environment, and sexual assault reporting processes. Sections of the report are: (1) "Executive Summary"; (2) "Introduction"; (3) "Awareness and Accountability"; (4) "Command Supervision and Oversight of the Academy"; (5) "Organizational Culture and Character Development"; (6) "Intervention and Response to Sexual Assault"; (7) "Recommendations"; (8) "Conclusion"; and (9) "Appendixes." The report contains 10 appendixes with supplemental information, including survey responses. (SLD)

The General Accounting Office (GAO) surveyed students and faculty at the academies operated by the Army, Navy, and Air Force to educate and train young men and women to become leaders and effective junior officers in the military services. A web-based survey of 12,264 students and 2,065 faculty members at the 3 service academies on questions related to such student life issues as academic and military programs; gender- and race/ethnicity-based discrimination and harassment; and preferential treatment. Results from students included the following: 59-71% reported that quality-of-life problems are openly confronted and/or solved to some, little, or no extent; over 90% rated their academic programs as good or excellent; a quarter to a third rated their academy's performance standards for developing military officers as too low; and over 80% of students not recruited as athletes reported that athletes receive preferential treatment during the admissions process. Results from faculty were similar, but they were less likely to say that quality-of-life programs are seldom openly confronted and/or solved; a quarter to a third agreed that their academy's performance standards for developing military officers were too low; and 72-90% responded that recruited athletes receive preferential treatment during the admissions process. (Contains 4 appendices, 16 tables, and 30 figures.) (MO)

The literature on women in science and engineering is extensive and addresses such issues as early education, decision to study and pursue careers in science, and how women fair in their jobs. This review used the literature on the careers of women scientists and engineers employed in academia to examine how women in these disciplines fare compared with their male counterparts. The women represented in this review have mostly completed their formal educations and have made the decision to pursue academic careers in science and engineering. Taken as a whole, the body of literature reviewed provides evidence that women in academic careers are disadvantaged compared with men in similar careers. Women faculty earn less, are promoted less frequently to senior academic ranks, and publish less frequently than their male counterparts. (Author/MVL)

This paper presents the results of efforts focusing on equitable practices in education in three states. The paper has three objectives: (1) to provide an overview of the implementation of equitable instructional strategies designed to increase student achievement and close identified performance gaps between and within traditional underserved populations; (2) to examine a number of methodologies for collection and quantifying data as a self-monitoring and decision-making strategy for practitioners; and (3) to summarize experiences and findings from three different studies in collaboration with practitioner researchers in Arizona, California, and New York. It was the goal of this paper to share a synthesis of the literature, experiences, and findings related to perception and expectations of those in positions of educational influence; examine the connections among instructional interaction patterns, curriculum content, and learning environments; and identify effective techniques for data collection and self-monitoring. In addition, this paper relates how practitioners can apply and transfer the accumulated knowledge and experience to others in education. Included in an appendix is a survey instrument from one of the studies. (Author/WFA)

The question of whether or not a "chilly" classroom environment exists for female college students was studied in selected disciplines at a university. Also explored was whether the research approach, survey or focus groups, revealed different things about the question. The study was conducted with undergraduate women students in six different disciplinary areas at a land grant university. Responses were received from 396 female students to a Web-administered questionnaire (41% response rate) and 6 focus groups, with a total of 20 participants, were conducted. Analyses of survey data do not unequivocally indicate the presence or absence of the chilly classroom climate, although survey responses suggest that this occurs in some disciplines. Focus group responses do suggest that behaviors characteristic of chilly classroom climates occur across disciplinary groups, and even disciplines with a female majority were not free of chilly classroom behaviors. Findings support the contention that research methods are important in assessing classroom climates. (Contains 25 references.) (SLD)

This report examines minority faculty and the representation of female faculty and faculty with disabilities. The report includes a close examination of the state's two fellowship programs for minority graduate students, the Illinois Minority Grant Incentive Program and the Illinois Consortium for Educational Opportunity Program. To address the issues of campus leadership and the search process, staff convened two formal focus groups that included minority faculty members. Five percent of faculty members at Illinois colleges and universities are African American, and 2% are Latino. This level of representation is much lower than the diversity found in the student enrollment and the state population. It is evident that increasing faculty diversity will not occur automatically by implementing new processes and procedures. It will require leadership at all levels. Substantial improvements must be made to campus climate and the faculty search process. The report outlines some strategies to help institutions exert more effective leadership and create a more supportive climate. Strengthening the pools for underrepresented faculty and sponsoring a statewide conference on the search process are two planned activities. The report also advocates developing a survey instrument that institutions can use to examine and improve campus climates. (Contains 21 references.) (SLD)

This report asserts that there are several findings and recommendations which have been included in the Commission on Opportunity in Athletics' report, which made recommendations for substantial changes to current Title IX guidelines and policies. It fundamentally disagrees with the tenor, structure, and significant portions of the content of the report, asserting that: it fails to present a full and fair consideration of the discrimination women face in athletics; any recommendations made by the majority would seriously weaken Title IX's protections and reduce opportunities for girls and women; and only one of the proposals would address budgetary causes underlying the discontinuation of men's teams. This report examines reasons why it cannot support many of the Commission's key recommendations, and it identifies problems with the Commission's process which contributed to problems with the report and with the recommendations that will weaken Title IX's protections. The paper asserts that these problems are due to a process, established by the Commission, that did not adequately focus on critical issues, did not compile all necessary evidence to fully address the state of gender equity in U.S. schools, and did not allow sufficient time for Commissioners to conduct a careful review of evidence that was compiled or an assessment of the potential impact of various recommendations. (SM)

Under a legislative mandate from the state of Washington, this report provides updated information on gender equity at each of the public institutions of higher education in Washington and at the community and technical colleges, as applicable. A look at student support and services shows that pay scales in student employment are not gender-specific, and jobs are not assigned on the basis of gender. An analysis of distribution of pay reveals some small differences in gender. Sexual harassment policies are clearly communicated, and discrimination does not appear to exist in student support and services. In the community and technical college system, discrepancies are found between men and women in three of the four largest program areas. At the public baccalaureate institutions the largest difference is in engineering, a finding that mirrors national figures. Participation rates for female athletes at two universities do not meet statutory goals, but the other baccalaureate institutions report participation rates within statutory requirements. The community college system overall shows athletic participation rates for females at acceptable levels. As directed by the legislature, the higher education system will report on gender equity again in 4 years. Seven appendixes contain detailed tables of gender equity findings. (SLD)

This paper presents a discussion by a group of specialists on education in the Muslim world, looking at the United Nations Development Program's Arab Human Development Report of 2002, "Creating Opportunities for Future Generations," and noting three major deficits that need to be addressed: the freedom deficit (political freedom), the deficit in the empowerment of women, and the deficit in knowledge, both in educational opportunities and in attitudes that govern the acquisition and application of knowledge. The discussion examines the history of the Muslim world and how it relates to today's educational situation. It also presents questions and answers from the audience about such topics as the poor conditions of education in most Muslim countries, freedom of education in the Muslim world, a new Islamic university in Jordan intended to promote a modern version of Islam, financial problems faced by the Jordanian educational system, how to bridge the resource gap between American and local universities within Muslim countries, and the importance of government commitment in order to see sustainable educational reforms. (SM)

In 2002, the U.S. Department of Education established the Commission on Opportunity in Athletics to collect information, analyze issues, and obtain public input related to improving the application of current standards for measuring equal opportunity for boys and girls to participate in athletics under Title IX. The National Coalition of Woman and Girls in Education believes that: no changes to the Title IX standards are necessary; what is needed to ensure equal opportunity is vigorous federal enforcement of Title IX and its implementing policies; and a pull-back on the nation's commitment to civil rights should not be precipitated by institutional financial decisions to emphasize selected sports programs, reduce the size of men's sports programs, or otherwise determine appropriate athletic program size and expense. This report demonstrates that: female athletes are still not receiving equal treatment or opportunities to participate; Title IX has been wrongly blamed for cuts to some men's sports teams at some institutions; and women are just as interested in athletics as men. Eight responses to questions from the Commission are presented. The report examines: Title IX and its impact on athletic opportunities; trends of discontinuation of men's and women's teams, financial issues facing schools (and solutions), and other issues raised by the Commission. (Contains 27 references.) (SM)

This document reports preliminary results from a national survey of college faculty performed as part of the Mapping Project. The project and the survey concern the ways faculty balance, or do not balance, commitments to work and family. The theoretical framework was based on the work of J. Williams (1991) and others who have argued that an "ideal worker norm" has developed that often leads to job discrimination against women. In the academic context, the ideal worker norm may led to "bias avoidance" behaviors that occur when individuals deny themselves the opportunity to take on family commitments or minimize the impact of family on work performance. The survey process began with a sample of 702 U.S. colleges and universities. Of these institutions, 507 provided faculty names and addresses, and complete responses were eventually received from 4,188 faculty members (net response rate of 28.6%). Analysis of the survey results shows that bias avoidance behaviors are more common among female than male faculty. Women responding reported raising fewer children and reported lower levels of organizational and supervisor support for dual commitments to work and family. Although evidence was mixed, it did not appear that research institutions are less conducive to family formation than are teaching institutions. An appendix describes the sample of institutions. (SLD)

Guatemala's school completion rates are among the lowest in Latin America and are particularly low in rural indigenous areas ravaged by 36 years of civil conflict. In 1997, USAID launched the Girls' Education Activity, known as Proyecto Global in Guatemala, to increase the percentage of girls who complete fifth grade, especially in rural areas and among indigenous (Maya) populations. For 4 years ending August 2001, the project promoted a national discourse on girls' education; developed materials crafted to promote girls' education in the Guatemalan social and cultural context; and pursued four strategies, focusing on the department of El Quiche. First, materials and teacher workshops were developed to increase teachers' sensitivity to gender stereotypes and roles and to introduce instructional methods that engage children and make them agents in their own learning. Adoption of these "interactive and dynamic" teaching methods by rural teachers has been slow. Second, community "sensitizing" workshops were held in 15 communities to raise awareness of the importance of girls' education and female literacy and to promote community involvement. Third, a national media campaign aimed to influence social attitudes impeding girls' access to education. Finally, small monthly scholarships were provided to about 50,000 girls over 3 years. Analysis of systemic changes suggests that the project made varying degrees of progress in legitimizing its goals with policy makers, creating stakeholders, and mobilizing resources in favor of girls' education. However, the constituency for girls' education in Guatemala remains limited to certain sectors of society and is robust only in pockets where community work was carried out. (SV)

Current debates about welfare reform center on the upcoming reauthorization of the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) legislation. The provisions of TANF include the elimination of the entitlement to cash assistance, block grant funding to the states, mandatory work requirements, sanctions, a 5-year limit on cash assistance, and "family formation" provisions. Although there has been a documented reduction in welfare case loads since the passage of TANF, data on earnings, income, and poverty are less positive. Research on "welfare leavers," for example, finds that those leaving welfare for employment are typically entering jobs paying below-poverty-level wages and are not receiving employer-provided benefits such as health insurance or paid sick or vacation leave. In preparation for reauthorization legislation, TANF should be changed to help women increase their access to jobs with living wages. A feminist agenda for TANF reauthorization acknowledges the nature of the labor markets poor women enter and the need to reduce gender-biased employment discrimination. It calls for the restructuring of time limits and sanctions to take into account the barriers to employment faced by many poor women and the fact that even those who become employed face hurdles to achieving economic security. A feminist agenda for TANF reauthorization proposes to strengthen the safety net for children, improve childcare provisions, increase educational and training opportunities, and make the legislation more responsive to business cycles, since economic downturns often hit former welfare recipients first. (Contains 59 references.) (KC)

The term "gender equity" can be described as being fair and just toward men and women, showing preference to neither sex, and concern for both sexes. A study addresses the covert and overt discrimination of girls and young women in the nation's elementary and secondary schools and presents and promotes strategies for educators to ensure equal educational opportunities for female students. Secondary purposes of the study include presenting ways to increase awareness of overt and subtle gender discrimination by male and female teachers that continues at all levels of education, and revealing the impact of these powerful effects on girls and young women that limit their career paths and life options. This paper presents strategies designed to promote strong self-efficacy and increased opportunities for success in the personal and professional lives of female students. The paper addresses the following issues: definitions of gender equity; the different voice; the different brain; different destinies for girls and young women; inequities in educational institutions; effects of gender inequities on female students; gender equity and technology; and strategies and solutions for gender equity. (Contains 25 references.) (BT)

This document presents a national vision for girls' education in Ghana and a strategic framework for achieving that vision. The vision statement is: "All Ghana's girl-children and their brothers are healthy, attend safe, welcoming schools, are well-taught by qualified teachers who understand their needs, achieve according to their potential, graduate and become productive and contributing members of our nurturing society." The document examines the persistent gender and regional disparities of girls' education in Ghana, stating that overcoming barriers to girls' education will require multiple perspectives and multisectoral partnerships. The government of Ghana is constrained by lack of resources and is searching for innovative, practical strategies that can motivate wider audiences to become involved. The Girls' Education Unit (GEU's) objectives are to increase enrollment, retention, and achievement of girls, particularly in the sciences, technology, and mathematics. Following introductory information, this document is divided into eight sections: (1) "Context of Girls' Education in Ghana"; (2) "Reform Efforts Focusing on Girls' Education in Ghana"; (3) "Toward the Adoption of a National Vision on Girls' Education: National Symposium on Girls' Education"; (4) "National Vision"; (5) "Strategic Framework"; (6) "Roles and Responsibilities of Key Players in Girls' Education"; (7) "Resources"; and (8) "Conclusion." (Contains 24 references.) (BT)

This policy brief highlights the interrelationship between sports participation and teen pregnancy prevention, noting barriers that have prevented sports from being utilized in teen pregnancy prevention. Discrimination against girls and women in school sports persists 30 years after Congress enacted Title IX, and this prevents girls and young women from fully participating in school sports and sports programs not affiliated with schools. Research suggests that the discipline, strength, and self-esteem that sports fosters in girls and young women can play a major role in preventing teen pregnancy and that participation in sports is important in the lives of many young women who are at risk for teen pregnancy and who may lack other sources of empowerment (e.g., girls of color and girls from low income families). Although state and federal laws are clear about requiring equal treatment of girls and boys in sports receiving public financial assistance, the written and unwritten policies of many schools and sports programs are not. Recommendations for school administrators and personnel include: parents and other individuals not affiliated with the school must be proactive in ensuring girls' rights to participate in sports; schools and policymakers must ensure that girls do not "stand on the sidelines" during physical education; and sports programs should hire more women coaches and athletic directors. (Contains 18 endnotes.) (SM)

The Working Group on Women in Physics of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) subcontracted with the American Institute of Physics to conduct an international study of women in physics in two phases. The first part was a benchmarking study to identify reliable sources and collect data on the representation of women in physics in as many IUPAP member countries as possible. The second part was an international survey of women physicists. The survey addressed issues related to education and employment. Country-level data and anecdotal information was collected from 34 countries. Individual responses were received from more than 1,000 women physicists in 54 countries. Most of the respondents said they developed an interest in physics during or before they were in secondary school, a finding that emphasizes the importance of the opportunity to study physics at an early age. Respondents felt they had generally positive experiences as undergraduates and as graduate students. About one-third thought that they had progressed more slowly in their careers than their colleagues had, and those who had children were more likely to think their careers were slower to progress. The factor most frequently cited by women physicists as contributing to their success was the support of their families, and many also mentioned the support of advisors, teachers, and colleagues. Among the barriers that were cited were problems of balancing child care with the demands of a scientific career. (Contains 15 tables.) (SLD)

The General Accounting Office (GAO) analyzed Current Population Survey (CPS) data for 1995-2000 to assess the situation of women managers in 10 industries that employ over 70 percent of women workers. Despite a sense of continued progress toward gender equality in the workplace, in the 10 industries employing 71 percent of United States (US) women workers and 73 percent of US women managers, data showed women managers continued to lag behind their male counterparts in both advancement and pay. In 7 industries, the wage gap actually widened. Women continued to be underrepresented in management and held a share of management jobs proportionate to their share of the industry workforce in only 5 industries. Women's record presence in the work force was not matched by their presence in the more influential and economically advantageous positions. Women's earnings now peaked at ages 45-54, just as men's did. Women often selected industries and occupations that enabled them to combine work and family responsibilities. Jobs where women predominated generally paid less than jobs where men predominated. Occupational segregation produced different levels of management and different management tracks, including tracks that led nowhere. In 2000, the pay gap among all working women and men was widest among parents. (Contains 12 endnotes) (YLB)

Gender bias can have many detrimental effects in education, including effects on teacher behavior, student performance, and the subject choices made by students. Various studies have shown that teachers tend to provide more specific and instructive feedback for boys and that males are likely to receive more teacher attention, most of it corrective. Teachers are unaware of their actions, and old habits are hard to change when they do become aware of their actions. Students themselves have conceptions about gender roles and abilities, and these also affect their conduct and the ways teachers react. A review of the literature has found that curriculum can have an impact on gender bias. Preservice teachers must be taught about the issues to help them become more reflective. Professional development can help teachers become aware of gender bias to treat all students more equitably. Among research needs in the area of gender bias is a measurement survey to measure gender bias behavior. (Contains 43 references.) (SLD)

A personal transformation group therapy program was designed to help Saudi women function more effectively in their daily lives. The major cognitive idea of these groups was to enable women to better understand their thinking patterns so that they could learn techniques to change. Personal transformation group topics included: Self-Esteem; Awareness and Conscious Living; Emotional Intelligence; Insight; and Honoring the Self. The groups were conducted at a Women's Center along with courses to teach them cooking; drawing; computer skills; foreign languages; and body fitness. Since receiving individual therapy from a mental health provider continues to be a stigma in the Arab culture a significant effort was made to present these groups as self-development. The success of these groups will continue to empower women to assume an increasingly active role in the social and economic development of their society and will continue to be the focus of international psychology. (JDM)

This paper presents results of a study that examined the current climate for female community college faculty. Two decades ago, Hall and Sandler coined the phrase "chilly climate" symbolically to embody a pervasive and negative climate reported by girls and women in their educational surroundings. Research literature continues to report on the chilly climate for female college students, faculty, and administrators. This report addresses the dearth of information specifically regarding female faculty at community colleges. The authors designed analyses of the community college faculty set consisting of responses of 743 and 740 female faculty. Using the literature as a guide, the study isolated constructs measuring: (1) overall assessment of the climate; (2) satisfaction with salary; (3) satisfaction with students; (4) propensity to leave the college; (5) desire for more interaction with colleagues; and (6) discrimination. In 1974, 28% of full professors at two-year colleges were female, compared with 10% in all other institutions. In 1997-98, 38% of full professors at two-year colleges were female, compared with 19% at all other institutions. This indicates that there is still evidence of a chilly climate in two-year colleges, but that female faculty there fare better than their counterparts at four-year institutions. (Contains 43 references, 5 tables, and 2 figures.) (NB)

A study considered the global problem of employment discrimination as it is reenacted in the Caribbean. It takes Dominica as a micro-example of how factors of differential education and cultural expectation interact within the influences of changing global economic policies to disadvantage men and women across the spectrum of employment opportunities. What is important about the study is that it brings together the varied influences that construct the specific context to offer a wider perspective on how gender discrimination in employment can emerge in such a context. Using evidence from reports and statistical data, the study explored gender discrimination in employment in Dominica such as why males overwhelmingly fill the lowest status jobs, and the anomaly that Dominican females outperform males in Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) passes; yet, 4 years later, mainly males occupy the few highest status jobs. Sociocultural, legal, financial, educational, and biological evidence is considered. In particular, differential gender influences in the Dominican educational system are reported that may influence the continued underachievement of males at CXC. Government funded and nongovernmental organizations "school-to-work" initiatives are noted that could help to move successful females into high status occupations. The relevance of recent government policy statements, legal amendments, and financial measures are also considered and statistical findings on Dominican gender disparities in achievement and occupational standings are compared with similar findings for African-Americans. Evidence is also presented pointing to biases in previous reporting and evaluation of these regional and international gender issues. (Contains 5 figures, 14 tables, and 35 references.) (Author/BT)

Using the yardsticks of independence and equality, an analysis of the literature on youth from a citizenship perspective can track youth's citizenship status and capacity to become full citizens. For young people, education is an avenue to either exclusion or independence and equality. For example, dropouts are more likely to live in poverty, and economic independence is considered key to achieving full citizenship. Exclusion exists in the school system, as schools continue to stream young women into traditional career paths and allow racial discrimination. Schools fail to provide the knowledge and capacity to make informed, intelligent choices about substance abuse and sexuality. Access to education, student debt, and labor market conditions delay economic independence. Young people face discrimination due to age and membership in a particular community. Examples of differential treatment are found in the areas of work, medicine, social services, and legal system. Their right to protection from harm is infringed upon most by the transportation system and societal problems related to gender, poverty, and marginalization. Having hope for the future and feelings of belonging influence youth participation in politics and resistance to marginalization through formation of subcultures and via political protest. The notion of precariousness best captures the experience of youth citizenship with respect to exercise of rights and responsibilities, access, and belonging. (Appendixes include a 271-item bibliography and roundtable summary.) (YLB)

The past 20 years have witnessed a significant metamorphosis with regard to clinical gender neutrality within the classrooms of public schools. However, the beginning and formative years of a child's formal entry into public school are overseen by female teachers. Men comprise only 12% of the teaching force in elementary school, and this 12% of men is clustered in upper elementary grades 4 through 6. This paper reviews the literature on discriminatory hiring practices toward male elementary school teachers and discusses the reasons for the perception of discrimination. The paper's overall conclusion is that, there is discrimination in hiring male teachers. The reasons for this bias may take overt or covert form, and additionally, this bias is rooted in a sociological and historic mindset. However, the paper finds that, aside from the external bias factors, men must assume a portion of the blame for their limited representation in numbers as elementary school teachers. Contains 23 notes, 10 references, and attached informational materials. (BT)

This paper provides an overview of teaching as a gendered profession in Finland, focusing on recent research on teachers and their professional development. Currently, women are better educated than men in Finland, but they still do not achieve employment positions and salaries equal to those of men. Though there tend to be more female than male teachers, most principals and professors are male. This researcher examined preservice teachers' and adult education teachers' biographies and professional socialization from a feminist point of view, noting the importance of using the life history approach to studying teachers. The study explored student teachers' identity making process during the one-year secondary teacher education program at Tampere University, comparing school teachers and adult education teachers and the ways in which their career paths and construction of personal and professional identities differed. Data were collected via life history interviews, student journals, portfolios, in-class assignments, and home assignments. (Contains 46 references.) (SM)