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Soybean aphid (Aphis glycines Matsumura) remains the most economically important arthropod pest of soybean in the Upper Midwest Region of the USA. Soybean aphid resistance to the pyrethroid insecticides emerged in 2015; however, the reduction in the efficacy of field applications of pyrethroid insecticides has not been quantified. Based on time-series data from insecticide efficacy trials at two locations, a novel approach of continuous two-phase change point-regression models was used to indicate whether a change in percent control had occurred, and to provide an indication of when and to what degree the percent control had changed.At both locations examined in this study, a significant change point for percent control of λ-cyhalothrin was detected in 2014, thus marking the onset of practical resistance in the soybean aphid. Percent control decreased at a rate of 4.30% and 19.90% per year at these locations. By contrast, percent control for chlorpyrifos remained high over time with no significant change point.This research demonstrates that retrospective time-series analysis of insecticide efficacy data can identify the onset and magnitude of practical resistance in the field. This further validates and compliments the other lines of evidence related to pyrethroid resistance in soybean aphid. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John WileySons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Spectral remote sensing has the potential to improve scouting and management of soybean aphid (Aphis glycines Matsumura), which can cause yield losses of over 40% in the North Central Region of the United States. We used linear support vector machines (SVMs) to determine 1) whether hyperspectral samples could be classified into treat/no-treat classes based on the economic threshold (250 aphids per plant) and 2) how many wavelengths or features are needed to generate an accurate model without overfitting the data. A range of aphid infestation levels on soybean was created using caged field plots in 2013, 2014, 2017, and 2018 in Minnesota and in 2017 and 2018 in Iowa. Hyperspectral measurements of soybean canopies in each plot were recorded with a spectroradiometer. SVM training and testing were performed using 15 combinations of normalized canopy reflectance at wavelengths of 720, 750, 780, and 1,010 nm. Pairwise Bonferroni-adjusted t-tests of Cohen’s kappa values showed four wavelength combinations were optimal, namely model 1 (780 nm), model 2 (780 and 1,010 nm), model 3 (780, 1,010, and 720 nm), and model 4 (780, 1,010, 720, and 750 nm). Model 2 showed the best overall performance, with an accuracy of 89.4%, a sensitivity of 81.2%, and a specificity of 91.6%. The findings from this experiment provide the first documentation of successful classification of remotely sensed spectral data of soybean aphid-induced stress into threshold-based classes.

Metabolic detoxification is a common mechanism of insecticide resistance, in which detoxifying enzyme genes are overexpressed. Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is one of the major soybean pests in the United States and has developed resistance to pyrethroid insecticides after almost two decades of use. To date, there are no validated reference genes to normalize expression of detoxification genes for pyrethroid resistance in A. glycines. From a literature review, a list was compiled of genes from 36 gene families (68 sequences) frequently used as reference genes in gene expression analysis in Hemiptera. Exon–exon junction primers were designed for the best alignment matches to a draft A. glycines genome and were assayed in a three-phase screening. The first screen eliminated nonamplifying primers. The second screen used nine A. glycines populations varying in resistance to pyrethroids and eliminated primers with inconsistent amplification or low amplification efficiency, and quantitatively assessed the stability of expression in the 14 remaining candidates using NormFinder and a generalization of BestKeeper. The third screen quantitatively validated these results on the best candidates. Six genes were identified with the greatest stability across technical and biological replication and the nine populations. The genes identified as the most suitable reference genes for the study of detoxifying enzymes related to pyrethroid resistance in soybean aphid were: actin, RPL9 (ribosomal protein L9), RPS9 (ribosomal protein S9), AK (arginine kinase), RNAPol2 (RNA polymerase II), and RPL17 (ribosomal protein L17). Our findings will support studies related to insecticide resistance in A. glycines.

Synopeas maximum Awad & Talamas, sp. nov., the first reported parasitoid associated with the soybean gall midge, Resseliella maxima Gagné, is described based on morphological and molecular data. Parasitoids were reared from soybean stems infested by R. maxima in Minnesota. A phylogenetic reconstruction of the genus Synopeas Förster was performed with COI sequences (n=2412) available on the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD). Phylogenetic and barcode gap analyses suggest 279 Synopeas species in this dataset, with S. maximum sequences forming a monophyletic clade that is distinct from relatives. The Synopeas maximum clade was close to specimens from Canada and the United States, suggesting it is native to North America. We present a taxonomic treatment of S. maximum to facilitate its identification, including comparison to morphologically similar species. This project provides baseline data for further ecological study of R. maxima parasitism, and its management in soybean.

Made available in DSpace on 2021-06-25T12:16:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2021-05-21 Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) Changes in Brazilian corn production practices, have favored stink bugs, which feed on corn seedlings. Diceraeus melacanthus (Dallas) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is a key pest in corn, and Euschistus heros (F.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is an emerging threat to corn. Economic thresholds (ET) for management of stink bugs are usually calculated based on the injury caused by adults. However, little is known about the impact of stink bug nymphs on corn seedlings. Thus, this work evaluated the effects of infestation with different nymphal instars on corn seedling weight (fresh and dry), plant height and stalk diameter. We also classified the level of overall injury to the seedlings using a rating scale. Corn seedlings in the V3 stage were infested with two insects of either D. melacanthus or E. heros in the 2(nd), 3(rd), 4(th), 5(th) instars or adult stage in separate greenhouse studies performed for each species. Plants without infestation were used as controls. Both species of stink bugs feeding on corn seedlings affected all the assessed parameters. The quantitative measures of seedling size (i.e., fresh weight, dry weight, plant height and stem diameter) were generally most severely affected by the 5(th) instars and adults of D. melacanthus and the 4(th) instars of E. heros. The qualitative injury rating scale generally showed a greater impact to seedlings by 3(rd) instar to adult life stages of each species. Across life stages, injury to seedlings caused by D. melacanthus was numerically greater than that from E. heros. These results will guide the development of a more accurate ETs for stink bug management on seedling corn plants. Sao Paulo State Univ, Sch Agr, Dept Crop Protect, BR-18610034 Botucatu, SP, Brazil Fed Univ Grande Dourados, Dept Entomol & Biodivers Conservat, BR-79804970 Dourados, MS, Brazil Agr Res & Rural Extens Co Santa Catarina, BR-89801970 Chapeco, SC, Brazil Univ Minnesota, Dept Entomol, St Paul, MN 55108 USA Sao Paulo State Univ, Sch Agr, Dept Crop Protect, BR-18610034 Botucatu, SP, Brazil CAPES: 001 CNPq: 303892/2016-1

Soybean aphid (Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae)) has been a major pest of soybean in North America since its detection in this continent in 2000 and subsequent spread. Although several aphid resistance genes have been identified, at least four soybean aphid biotypes have been discovered, with three of them being virulent on soybean cultivars with certain soybean aphid resistance genes. These biotypes are known to vary across years and locations, but information on their variation within single fields is limited. An investigation was conducted to study the variation of soybean aphid biotypes within single townships and fields in Minnesota. Screening of 28 soybean aphid isolates collected from seven soybean fields (six soybean fields in Cairo and Wellington Townships of Renville County, MN and one field in Wilmar Township of Kandiyohi County, MN) revealed the existence of multiple known biotypes of soybean aphid within single fields of soybean. We found up to three biotypes of soybean aphid in a single field. Two biotypes were found in five fields while only one field had only a single biotype. Three isolates presented reactions on a panel of resistant and susceptible indicator lines that were different from known biotypes. These results highlight the importance of characterizing soybean aphid biotypes in small geographical areas and utilizing generated knowledge to develop soybean cultivars pyramided with multiple resistance genes. The outcome will be decreased use of insecticides, thereby improving economic and environmental sustainability of soybean production.

Stink bugs represent an increasing risk to soybean production in the Midwest region of the United States. The current sampling protocol for stink bugs in this region is tailored for population density estimation and thus is more relevant to research purposes. A practical decision-making framework with more efficient sampling effort for management of herbivorous stink bugs is needed. Therefore, a binomial sequential sampling plan was developed for herbivorous stink bugs in the Midwest region. A total of 146 soybean fields were sampled across 11 states using sweep nets in 2016, 2017, and 2018. The binomial sequential sampling plans were developed using combinations of five tally thresholds at two proportion infested action thresholds to identify those that provided the best sampling outcomes. Final assessment of the operating characteristic curves for each plan indicated that a tally threshold of 3 stink bugs per 25 sweeps, and proportion infested action thresholds of 0.75 and 0.95 corresponding to the action thresholds of 5 and 10 stink bugs per 25 sweeps, provided the optimal balance between highest probability of correct decisions (≥ 99%) and lowest probability of incorrect decisions (≤ 1%). In addition, the average sample size for both plans (18 and 12 sets of 25 sweeps, respectively) was lower than that for the other proposed plans. The binomial sequential sampling plan can reduce the number of sample units required to achieve a management decision, which is important because it can potentially reduce risk/cost of management for stink bugs in soybean in this region.

The brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is an invasive species to North America and has spread throughout most of the territory. Understanding flight in H. halys is crucial to understanding the dispersal capacity and developing forecasting models for this pest. The purpose of this research was to assess the effects of starvation, age, mating status, sex, and preflight weight on flight parameters of laboratory-reared H. halys using computer-monitored flight mills. The mean flight distance observed over a 24-h period was 266 m and the maximum distance was 7.3 km. Overall, the flight capacity of males and females was similar, even though females weighed more than males. The proportion of H. halys that initiated flight was not affected by starvation, age, or mating status. The number of bouts of individual flights and velocity significantly increased with longer durations of starvation. The number of bouts significantly decreased with increasing age. The total distance flew and total flight time was not affected by starvation, age, or mating status. Although some statistical differences were seen across the experiments, these differences likely represent minimal ecological significance. Therefore, these results suggest that H. halys are remarkably resilient, which may contribute to their success as an invasive species. The findings of this study could help better predict the dispersal potential of H. halys in Minnesota.

Made available in DSpace on 2021-06-25T11:56:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2021-04-01 Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Halyomorpha halys (Stal) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is an invasive species in the United States representing a great threat to crops of economic importance, such as soybean and corn. Due to the lack of information about its damage to early vegetative-stage corn, this study was conducted to provide information about H. halys damage to sweet corn seedlings. In the field experiment, caged sweet corn seedlings were exposed to sexed H. halys adults of densities of 0, 1, or 2 insects per plant for 7 d. In a complementary greenhouse experiment, caged sweet corn seedlings were exposed to 0 or 2 nonsexed H. halys at different stages (second to fifth instars and adult) per plant for 14 d. In both experiments, we evaluated plant fresh and dry weights, plant height, stalk diameter and plant injury (using a rating scale, 0 to 5). In the field experiment, plant injury based on the rating scale was greater in plants exposed to insects compared with the control. In the greenhouse experiment, fresh and dry weights, height and diameter of seedlings were lower for those exposed to fourth instars. This stage also caused greater injury based on the rating scale. In general, our results indicate that H. halys can feed on sweet corn seedlings, and that fourth instars cause more injury. The rating scale adapted here can be used for early identification of H. halys occurrence and to assess its injury in the field. Univ Minnesota, Dept Entomol, 1980 Folwell Ave, St Paul, MN 55108 USA Sao Paulo State Univ, Sch Agr, Dept Crop Protect, BR-18610034 Botucatu, SP, Brazil Univ Fed Vicosa, Dept Entomol, BR-36570900 Vicosa, MG, Brazil Res & Rural Extens Co Santa Catarina, Res Ctr Family Agr, BR-89801970 Chapeco, SC, Brazil Sao Paulo State Univ, Sch Agr, Dept Crop Protect, BR-18610034 Botucatu, SP, Brazil CAPES: 001

The frequent use of insecticides to manage soybean aphids, Aphis glycines (Hemiptera: Aphididae), in the United States has contributed to field-evolved resistance. Pyrethroid-resistant aphids have nonsynonymous mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel (vgsc). We identified a leucine to phenylalanine mutation at position 1014 (L1014F) and a methionine to isoleucine mutation (M918I) of the A. glycines vgsc, both suspected of conferring knockdown resistance (kdr) to lambda-cyhalothrin. We developed molecular markers to identify these mutations in insecticide-resistant aphids. We determined that A. glycines which survived exposure to a diagnostic concentration of lambda-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin via glass-vial bioassays had these mutations, and showed significant changes in the resistance allele frequency between samples collected before and after field application of lambda-cyhalothrin. Thus, a strong association was revealed between aphids with L1014F and M918I vgsc mutations and survival following exposure to pyrethroids. Specifically, the highest survival was observed for aphids with the kdr (L1014F) and heterozygote super-kdr (L1014F + M918I) genotypes following laboratory bioassays and in-field application of lambda-cyhalothrin. These genetic markers could be used as a diagnostic tool for detecting insecticide-resistant A. glycines and monitoring the geographic distribution of pyrethroid resistance. We discuss how generating these types of data could improve our efforts to mitigate the effects of pyrethroid resistance on crop production.

The Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, is an invasive insect to the United States that feeds on turfgrass roots as a larva and the foliage, flowers, and fruit of many major ornamental and agricultural crops, such as apple, as an adult. Despite its generalist feeding behavior, P. japonica shows preferences for certain plant species and cultivars. Classical biological control for P. japonica, including release of Istocheta aldrichi (Mensil), has been pursued in Minnesota. This study was conducted to assess the effects of apple cultivar on season-long abundance of adult P. japonica and their defoliation; and to assess effects of apple cultivar and P. japonica abundance and sex on parasitism of P. japonica by I. aldrichi. Sampling occurred during the summers of 2017 and 2018 on Zestar! and Honeycrisp cultivars in four different apple orchards. Abundance and defoliation of P. japonica was higher on Honeycrisp than Zestar!. Parasitism of P. japonica by I. aldrichi was higher for females than for males. In 2018, the relationship between parasitism of P. japonica and host density varied by cultivar. These findings may help growers determine which apple cultivars should be prioritized for scouting and management efforts and may provide an estimate of potential biological control by I. aldrichi in agricultural areas in the Midwest.

Made available in DSpace on 2021-06-25T11:08:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2021-03-01 Stink bugs are considered limiting pests to important crops worldwide. In Brazil, the green-belly stink bug, Dichelops melacanthus Dallas (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), has become a key pest to the young phase of corn crop, being a problem especially when it succeeds soybean in the field. Injuries caused by this species vary from holes on new leaves to plant death in severe attacks. The main control technique used to this pest are seed treatment and insecticide spraying. Although both methods show some efficiency, factors as outbreaks in the resistance to insecticides and the different susceptibility existent among stink bugs population, leads to the search of other control strategies. Thus, less harmful tools to the environment and humans are highly desirable. In this sense, resistant plants appear as a valuable alternative for insect management, being compatible with other IPM methods. This study evaluated the resistance of 16 corn genotypes to D. melacanthus in order to characterize antixenosis and/or antibiosis expression. Antixenosis was accessed through preference multi-choice test with 5th instar nymphs. For antibiosis assessment, 60 2nd instar nymphs were confined on seedlings of 13 selected genotypes. Seedlings of IAC 8046, IAC 8390 and SCS 156 Colorado corn genotypes were less infested by D. melacanthus at 24 h after bugs were released indicating antixenosis expression. Genotypes IAC 8390 and JM 2M60 negatively affected some biological parameters of the green belly stink bug, indicating the occurrence of antibiosis. These genotypes can be useful to breeding programs focusing on corn resistance to stink bugs species. Department of Crop Protection São Paulo State University (UNESP) School of Agriculture Research Center for Family Agriculture Research and Rural Extension Company of Santa Catarina Department of Entomology and Biodiversity Conservation Federal University of Grande Dourados Department of Entomology and Acarology University of São Paulo Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture Department of Entomology University of Minnesota, 1980 Folwell Ave. Department of Crop Protection São Paulo State University (UNESP) School of Agriculture

Understanding the mechanisms of pyrethroid resistance is essential to the effective management of pesticide resistance in Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae). We mined putative detoxifying enzyme genes in the draft genome sequence of A. glycines for cytochrome oxidase P450 (CYP), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and esterases (E4 and carboxylesterases-CES). Aphids from clonal populations resistant to pyrethroids from three sites in Minnesota, USA, were screened against a diagnostic LC99 concentration of either λ-cyhalothrin or bifenthrin and detoxifying enzyme genes expression in survivors was analyzed by qPCR. Their expression profiles were compared relative to a susceptible clonal population. We found 61 CYP (40 full-length), seven GST (all full-length), seven E4 (five full-length) and three CES (two full-length) genes, including 24 possible pseudogenes. The detoxifying enzymes had different expression profiles across resistant aphid populations, possibly reflecting differences in the genetic background and pyrethroid selection pressures as the number of constitutively overexpressed detoxifying enzyme genes was correlated with the level of resistance. Our findings will strengthen the understanding of the pyrethroid resistance mechanisms in A. glycines.

Twenty years after the arrival of soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), in the United States, it remains the most economically important arthropod pest of soybean in the Upper Midwest Region. After years of repeated and sustained insecticidal pressures placed on the aphid, resistance to the pyrethroid class of insecticides has been documented in multiple years over a large geographic area. In this study, the fitness of aphid isolates displaying resistant and susceptible phenotypes to λ-cyhalothrin were compared within several experiments over three soybean-growing seasons. Rates of population increase were evaluated on whole plants in the greenhouse, intrinsic rates of increase were calculated from leaf discs in the laboratory, and aphid size and asymmetry were compared through tibial measurements. No evidence of a fitness cost associated with the resistant phenotype was seen in any of our experiments. In contrast, individual resistant isolates occasionally supported significantly higher fitness values than some susceptible isolates. Additionally, a pooled analysis comparing resistant and susceptible phenotypes across years and isolates revealed that, on average, the resistant phenotype had significantly higher fitness values than the susceptible phenotype in most experiments. The lack of reproductive fitness costs associated with the pyrethroid-resistant phenotype raises concerns for longevity of pyrethroid use in soybean aphid management.

Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura, remains the most economically damaging arthropod pest of soybean in the midwestern United States and southern Canada. Foliar applications of a limited number of insecticide modes of action have been the primary management tactic, and pyrethroid resistance was documented recently with full concentration–response leaf-dip and glass-vial bioassays. Full concentration–response bioassays can be cumbersome, and a more efficient assessment tool was needed. In this study, we implemented a diagnostic-concentration glass-vial bioassay using bifenthrin and λ-cyhalothrin. Bioassays were conducted with field-collected soybean aphid populations to assess the geographic extent and severity of resistance to pyrethroids. In 2017, 10 of 18 and 11 of 21 field populations tested with bifenthrin and λ-cyhalothrin, respectively, had mean proportion mortalities less than the susceptible laboratory population. In 2018, 17 of 23 and 13 of 23 field populations tested with bifenthrin and λ-cyhalothrin, respectively, had mean proportion mortalities less than the susceptible laboratory population. Populations collected after reported field failures of a pyrethroid insecticide generally had mean proportion mortalities less than the susceptible laboratory population. In both years, there was a strong correlation between chemistries, which suggests cross-resistance between these insecticides. The diagnostic-concentration glass-vial bioassays reported here will provide the foundation for an insecticide resistance monitoring program with the ability to determine practical levels and geographic extent of insecticide resistance.

Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a common pest of soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill (Fabales: Fabaceae), in North America requiring frequent scouting as part of an integrated pest management plan. Current scouting methods are time consuming and provide incomplete coverage of soybean. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are capable of collecting high-resolution imagery that offer more detailed coverage in agricultural fields than traditional scouting methods. Recently, it was documented that changes to the spectral reflectance of soybean canopies caused by aphid-induced stress could be detected from ground-based sensors; however, it remained unknown whether these changes could also be detected from UAV-based sensors. Small-plot trials were conducted in 2017 and 2018 where cages were used to manipulate aphid populations. Additional open-field trials were conducted in 2018 where insecticides were used to create a gradient of aphid pressure. Whole-plant soybean aphid densities were recorded along with UAV-based multispectral imagery. Simple linear regressions were used to determine whether UAV-based multispectral reflectance was associated with aphid populations. Our findings indicate that near-infrared reflectance decreased with increasing soybean aphid populations in caged trials when cumulative aphid days surpassed the economic injury level, and in open-field trials when soybean aphid populations were above the economic threshold. These findings provide the first documentation of soybean aphid-induced stress being detected from UAV-based multispectral imagery and advance the use of UAVs for remote scouting of soybean aphid and other field crop pests.

Stink bugs are an emerging threat to soybean (Fabales: Fabaceae) in the North Central Region of the United States. Consequently, region-specific scouting recommendations for stink bugs are needed. The aim of this study was to characterize the spatial pattern and to develop sampling plans to estimate stink bug population density in soybean fields. In 2016 and 2017, 125 fields distributed across nine states were sampled using sweep nets. Regression analyses were used to determine the effects of stink bug species [Chinavia hilaris (Say) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and Euschistus spp. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)], life stages (nymphs and adults), and field locations (edge and interior) on spatial pattern as represented by variance–mean relationships. Results showed that stink bugs were aggregated. Sequential sampling plans were developed for each combination of species, life stage, and location and for all the data combined. Results for required sample size showed that an average of 40–42 sample units (sets of 25 sweeps) would be necessary to achieve a precision of 0.25 for stink bug densities commonly encountered across the region. However, based on the observed geographic gradient of stink bug densities, more practical sample sizes (5–10 sample units) may be sufficient in states in the southeastern part of the region, whereas impractical sample sizes (>100 sample units) may be required in the northwestern part of the region. Our findings provide research-based sampling recommendations for estimating densities of these emerging pests in soybean.

The frequent use of insecticides to manage soybean aphids, Aphis glycines (Hemiptera: Aphididae), in the United States has contributed to field-evolved resistance. Pyrethroid-resistant aphids have nonsynonymous mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel (vgsc). We identified a leucine to phenylalanine mutation at position 1014 (L1014F) and a methionine to isoleucine mutation (M918I) of the A. glycines vgsc, both suspected of conferring knockdown resistance (kdr) to lambda-cyhalothrin. We developed molecular markers to identify these mutations in insecticide-resistant aphids. We determined that A. glycines which survived exposure to a diagnostic concentration of lambda-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin via glass-vial bioassays had these mutations, and showed significant changes in the resistance allele frequency between samples collected before and after field application of lambda-cyhalothrin. Thus, a strong association was revealed between aphids with L1014F and M918I vgsc mutations and survival following exposure to pyrethroids. Specifically, the highest survival was observed for aphids with the kdr (L1014F) and heterozygote super-kdr (L1014F + M918I) genotypes following laboratory bioassays and in-field application of lambda-cyhalothrin. These genetic markers could be used as a diagnostic tool for detecting insecticide-resistant A. glycines and monitoring the geographic distribution of pyrethroid resistance. We discuss how generating these types of data could improve our efforts to mitigate the effects of pyrethroid resistance on crop production.

The egg parasitoid Trissolcus japonicus is a natural enemy of Halyomorpha halys, a polyphagous invasive pest in Europe and North and South America. Integration of chemical and biological control tactics could facilitate effective and sustainable integrated pest management programs. This study was conducted to assess (i) the lethal effects of field rates, (ii) the sublethal effects of maximum and half field rates, and (iii) the lethal effects of different routes of exposure of three organic and two conventional insecticides against T. japonicus. Maximum field rates of spinosad and sulfoxaflor resulted in acute lethal toxicity to adult T. japonicus 1 week after residual contact exposure. Maximum and half field rates of pyrethrins, the mixture of azadirachtin and pyrethrins, and clothianidin caused sublethal effects to female wasps through residual contact exposure. Furthermore, all insecticides caused acute lethal effects 1 week after ingestion by unmated female wasps. Taken together, these results suggest that careful planning is necessary to ensure compatibility between biological and chemical control for H. halys. The insecticides evaluated in this study varied in toxicity to T. japonicus and should be used with caution to conserve this natural enemy for biological control of H. halys.

Soybean is an established crop with a high production value in the United States. The insects that utilize soybean as a food source have changed drastically over the last 20 yr. Much of the extension literature summarizing pest species distribution and abundance is out of date. This article provides profiles for five common soybean caterpillars, including description, life cycle, and injury to plants.

The distribution of lepidopteran pests in soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is a current knowledge gap limiting accurate prioritization of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) research. Regional characterizations of lepidopteran distribution in soybean are now more than 25 yr old. The goal of this study was to generate a contemporary assessment of the distribution and population persistence of lepidopteran soybean pests. To understand which species are currently infesting soybean and their persistence, we conducted a survey of soybean entomologists with responsibility for approximately 33.6 million hectares of production in 31 U.S. states. Soybean entomologists were asked questions about presence of lepidopteran pests and their persistence in their state. We focused this survey on five lepidopteran pests: corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), green cloverworm (Hypena scabra Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), painted lady (Vanessa cardui L.) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), soybean looper (Chrysodeixis includens Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and velvetbean caterpillar (Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae). Soybean entomologists also provided insight into regionally relevant or sporadic lepidopteran soybean pests. Participants were also questioned about common scouting practices in each state. Results of this survey highlight dissimilar geographic distribution and relative persistence of lepidopteran pests in soybean. Clear differences in occurrence and abundance among species provide important contemporary distributions and persistence estimates. Assessments of scouting practices demonstrate a need to improve IPM adoption in some states. Results of this study and its complementary pest profile (concurrently published in JIPM) provide a contemporary foundation for studies of lepidopteran soybean pests.

Macrosaccus morrisella (Fitch) is a tiny leaf-mining moth native to North America. In this publication, we provide first reports of this insect feeding on soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., in Canada and the United States, describe its injury to soybean, and briefly review leaf miners associated with soybean. Further efforts related to M. morrisella should focus on its geographic extent of infestation of soybean, impacts to soybean, and ecology in the agricultural landscape.

BACKGROUND In precision integrated pest management, management tactics are implemented only where and when needed, by identifying the sites where the pest population has reached economic thresholds. Tomato, Solanum lycopersicum (Linn.), is a vegetable cultivated worldwide, but its production is reduced by insect pests such as the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.). To improve management, there is a need to understand B. tabaci spatial dynamics in tomato fields, which will elucidate colonization patterns and may improve management of this pest. Thus, this study was conducted to assess the spatial autocorrelation, distribution, and colonization patterns of B. tabaci in 19 commercial tomato fields through the growing season. RESULTS A total of 69 isotropic variograms were fit for B. tabaci. The insect distribution was aggregated with a strong level of spatial dependence. Ranges of spatial dependence varied from 0.53 to 19.05 m and 0.5 to 20 m for adults and nymphs, respectively. Overall, densities of adults and nymphs were higher and reached the economic threshold mainly at the field edges. CONCLUSION Our results suggest a colonization pattern for B. tabaci starting at the edges and spreading inwards in to the tomato fields. This study can improve B. tabaci management in tomato fields, especially scouting and decision-making to treat fields. Scouting for this pest should be directed to the field edges, with sample points at least 20 m apart from each other for independent insect counts. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Stink bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) are agricultural pests of increasing significance in the North Central Region of the United States, posing a threat to major crops such as soybean. Biological control can reduce the need for insecticides to manage these pests, but the parasitism of stink bugs by Tachinidae (Diptera) is poorly characterized in this region. The objective of this study was to evaluate the rate of parasitism of stink bugs by tachinids over 2 yr from nine states across the North Central Region. Parasitism was assessed by quantifying tachinid eggs on the integument of stink bug adults. Parasitism rates (i.e., percent of adult stink bugs with tachinid eggs) were compared across stink bug species, states, stink bug sex, and years. The mean percent parasitism of stink bugs by tachinids was about 6% across the region and did not differ among stink bug species. Mean percent parasitism was significantly higher in Missouri than in northern and western states. In addition, male stink bugs had significantly higher mean percent parasitism than females. Stink bug species commonly found in soybean in the region showed some parasitism and are therefore potentially vulnerable to oviposition by these parasitoids. This is the first study to characterize the level of parasitism of stink bugs by tachinids across the North Central Region.

Background Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a significant insect pest of soybean in North America. Accurate estimation of A. glycines densities requires costly, time-intensive weekly counts of adults and nymphs on plants. Field studies were conducted in 2013 and 2014 to assess the potential for spectral-based remote sensing to more efficiently quantify cumulative aphid-days (CADs) using soybean canopy reflectance. Results Narrow-band wavelengths in the near-infrared spectral range were associated with CAD, but those in the visible spectral range were not associated with CAD. Simple linear regression models of CAD on reflectance were generally better than quadratic and cubic regression models. Simulated wide-band sensors centered at 740-1100 nm yielded better regression models than ones centered at 600-740 nm, regardless of bandwidth. Among the simulated wide-band sensors, increasing sensor bandwidth worsened CAD estimation or required more simulated sensors to optimize CAD estimation. Optimal combinations of spectral bands explained 83-96% of the experimentally manipulated variation in CAD. Conclusion Near-infrared wavelengths at 780 ± 50 nm can effectively estimate A. glycines abundance on soybean. Our approach of simulating wide-band multispectral sensors from ground-based hyperspectral data helped to refine spectral sensors and holds potential to reduce the cost and complexity of treat/no-treat classification tasks. This study will contribute to future research aiming to quantify insect injury using customized commercial-grade sensors for detection, quantification, and differentiation of A. glycines from other stressors. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphidae), a major pest of soybean in the Midwest U.S., is primarily controlled with insecticides, but aphid-resistant plants are becoming available for growers. However, aphid populations can still occasionally build to economically damaging levels on resistant plants, which require treatment with insecticides to protect yields. To determine if resistant plants alter soybean aphid susceptibility to foliar insecticides, aphid populations were monitored over two years from 2014 to 2015 in field experiments with near isogenic soybean lines that were either susceptible or resistant to aphids. Field plots of each soybean line were either untreated or treated with an organophosphate (i.e., chlorpyrifos), a pyrethroid (i.e., λ-cyhalothrin), or a mixture of pyrethrum and azadirachtin. Greenhouse bioassays were also conducted with near isogenic lines and two of the insecticides to examine potential interactions under more controlled conditions. In field plots, organophosphate and pyrethroid treatments significantly reduced cumulative aphid days on at least one soybean line each year; additive effects between resistant plants and insecticides were most common. However, significant synergistic interactions between resistant plants and insecticide were found for λ-cyhalothrin in 2015. On chlorpyrifos-treated plants, a synergistic interaction occurred in 2014 and an antagonistic interaction occurred in 2015, but aphid populations did not exceed those of untreated resistant plants. Interactions between aphid-resistant plants and foliar insecticides were variable, but these tactics generally appear compatible for integrated pest management programs. Growers could benefit from additive and synergistic interactions, and the only documented instance of antagonism had a relatively small effect.

Edamame, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, consumption continues to rise in the United States. Improved understanding of production threats, including insect pests, could facilitate increasing production of edamame in the north-central United States. Two years of complimentary field and laboratory experiments were performed to assess insect pest populations on commercially available edamame varieties. Fourteen varieties of edamame and four grain-type soybean varieties were tested in the laboratory with soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), and subsets of these varieties were tested in the field with naturally occurring insect populations. In the laboratory, mean aphid densities on the edamame varieties Agate and Chiba Green did not differ from the aphid-resistant grain-type soybean. Among edamame, aphid densities on Agate, Chiba Green, and Kuroshinju were significantly lower than on Hokkaido Black. In both years of the field experiment, aphid densities were significantly lower on the aphid-resistant grain-type compared to all others varieties. In 2016, aphid populations on edamame varieties did not differ from the aphid-susceptible grain-types. However, in 2017 with greater aphid exposure, differences were seen among edamame varieties, and between edamame and aphid-susceptible grain-types. In both years, potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), densities tended to be higher on edamame varieties compared to grain-types, and varied significantly among edamame varieties. In a laboratory study, differences were seen among varieties in mean density of trichomes, with grain-types generally having more trichomes than edamame. Results of this research will provide a foundation for development of production recommendations for edamame in the north-central United States.

Pest-induced changes in plant reflectance are crucial for the development of pest management programs using remote sensing. However, it is unknown if plant reflectance data is also affected by foliar insecticides applied for pest management. Our study assessed the effects of foliar insecticides on leaf reflectance of soybean. A 2-yr field trial and a greenhouse trial were conducted using randomized complete block and completely randomized designs, respectively. Treatments consisted of an untreated check, a new systemic insecticide (sulfoxaflor), and two representatives of the most common insecticide classes used for soybean pest management in the north-central United States (i.e., λ-cyhalothrin and chlorpyrifos). Insecticides were applied at labeled rates recommended for controlling soybean aphid; the primary insect pest in the north-central United States. Leaf-level reflectance was measured using ground-based spectroradiometers. Sulfoxaflor affected leaf reflectance at some red and blue wavelengths but had no effect at near-infrared or green wavelengths. Chlorpyrifos affected leaf reflectance at some green, red, and near-infrared wavelengths but had no effect at blue wavelengths. λ-cyhalothrin had the least effect on spectral reflectance among the insecticides, with changes to only a few near-infrared wavelengths. Our results showing immediate and delayed effects of foliar insecticides on soybean reflectance indicate that application of some insecticides may confound the use of remote sensing for detection of not only insects but also plant diseases, nutritional and water deficiencies, and other crop stressors.

Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a damaging invasive pest of soybean in the upper Midwest. Threshold-based insecticide applications are the primary control method for soybean aphid, but few insecticide groups are available (i.e., pyrethroids, organophosphates, and neonicotinoids). To quantify current levels of soybean aphid susceptibility to pyrethroids in the upper Midwest and monitor for insecticide resistance, leaf-dip bioassays were performed with λ-cyhalothrin in 2013-2015, and glass-vial bioassays were performed with λ-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin in 2015 and 2016. Soybean aphids were collected from 27 population-years in Minnesota and northern Iowa, and were compared with a susceptible laboratory colony with no known insecticide exposure since discovery of soybean aphid in North America in 2000. Field-collected aphids from some locations in leaf-dip and glass-vial bioassays had significantly lower rates of insecticide-induced mortality compared with the laboratory population, although field population susceptibility varied by year. In response to sublethal concentrations of λ-cyhalothrin, adult aphids from some locations required higher concentrations of insecticide to reduce nymph production compared with the laboratory population. The most resistant field population demonstrated 39-fold decreased mortality compared with the laboratory population. The resistance documented in this study, although relatively low for most field populations, indicates that there has been repeated selection pressure for pyrethroid resistance in some soybean aphid populations. Integrated pest management and insecticide resistance management should be practiced to slow further development of soybean aphid resistance to pyrethroids.

The brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stal), is a highly polyphagous invasive pest. Increased use of broad-spectrum insecticides to manage H. halys has resulted in secondary pest outbreaks and disruptions to integrated pest management (IPM) programs. We evaluated H. halys mortality, molting, and feeding after exposure to insecticides in the laboratory. Five insecticides (four active ingredients), considered less risky to natural enemies, were compared to a pyrethroid insecticide and an untreated control. Compared to the control, only azadirachtin + pyrethrins significantly reduced egg hatch, while all insecticides caused significant direct mortality to 1st and 2nd instars 5 days after hatch (DAH). Bifenthrin quickly caused complete mortality of adults, and the only insecticide to statistically match this level of mortality was sulfoxaflor at 14 days after treatment (DAT). Azadirachtin + pyrethrins and sulfoxaflor significantly reduced the proportion of 1st instars that molted compared to the control. Adults that survived sulfoxaflor exposure produced significantly fewer feeding sites than the control. However, when taking into consideration both lethal and sublethal effects, all insecticides, except pyrethrins, resulted in significant reductions in feeding sites/individual compared to the control. This more complete estimate of efficacy (i.e., reduction in injury/insect), confirms the potential of several insecticides to reduce crop injury without the necessity of high direct mortality to H. halys.

Halyomorpha halys (Stal) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is native to Asia and has become a severe agricultural and nuisance pest in the U.S. Therefore, foreign exploration was conducted in Asia to identify potential classical biological control agents. Several Trissolcus spp. (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) parasitize H. halys eggs in Asia and are being evaluated for potential release in the U.S. Since H. halys has invaded regions that experience sub-zero winter temperatures, cold tolerance is important for evaluation of Trissolcus spp. Our study compared the cold tolerance of populations of T. japonicus and T. cultratus, in order to assess relative suitability of the populations for release. We used thermocouple thermometry to determine the supercooling point and lower lethal temperature after brief exposure to cold temperature for each population. In addition, we subjected adult T. japonicus to a short photoperiod and low temperature regime, which increases cold tolerance in H. halys, to observe whether these conditions cause a change in cold tolerance in the parasitoid. We found that populations of both species froze and survived at colder temperatures than those reported for H. halys. In addition, there were no ecologically relevant differences in the temperature at which freezing or survival occurred among populations of either species, indicating that these populations are equally cold tolerant and suitable for introduction. Finally, T. japonicus does not acclimate by increasing cold tolerance in response to conditions that increase cold tolerance in H. halys, suggesting that the above-mentioned measures of cold tolerance are ecologically relevant.

An invasive species, the brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), has emerged as a serious pest of orchard crops in the United States with the highest economic losses to date in Mid-Atlantic apple, Malus domestica Borkh. (Rosales: Rosaceae). If populations continue to grow and spread in the Midwest, H. halys has the potential to become a significant apple pest in the region. The purpose of this study was to assess the risk for injury from H. halys to several popular cold-hardy apple cultivars (Haralson, Honeycrisp, and Zestar!) grown in the Midwestern United States utilizing both field no-choice tests and laboratory choice tests at multiple timings. Results from the field no-choice tests revealed a greater risk for Honeycrisp from H. halys injury compared with Zestar! in mid-August. Results from the laboratory choice tests revealed a greater risk for injury by H. halys for Honeycrisp compared with Zestar! at all timings tested and a greater risk for Haralson compared with Honeycrisp at a later timing. These results echo previous findings in that relative maturity of the fruit seems to play a role in determining the risk of an apple cultivar to H. halys injury. These results also serve as the first assessment of the potential impact of H. halys on different cold-hardy apple cultivars, which will help guide growers in cultivar selection and identifying which apple cultivars should be prioritized for scouting and management efforts.

Halyomorpha halys is an invasive, polyphagous insect that feeds on many major crops, including apple. Statewide monitoring in Minnesota has shown continued increase of H. halys populations and occurrence of this pest in apple orchards. Potential arthropod natural enemies of H. halys and other pests have not been studied in Minnesota apple orchards. The purpose of this study was to characterize the composition of natural enemy communities; compare their abundances, richness and diversities between apple cultivars using different sampling methods; and assess the impact of natural enemies on sentinel eggs of H. halys in Minnesota apple orchards. Sampling occurred during the summers of 2017 and 2018 on Zestar! and Honeycrisp cultivars in four different apple orchards. In vacuum samples, arachnids, neuropterans, and coccinellids had the highest relative abundances. On yellow sticky traps, anthocorids were the most abundant. The total predator abundance differed between the cultivars sampled across years, with more predators found on Zestar! compared with Honeycrisp. No differences were observed in richness or diversity between cultivars with the exception of yellow sticky traps in 2017, which showed a greater diversity of predators in Zestar!. Despite the abundance of natural enemies sampled, sentinel egg masses deployed in the orchards each summer suffered on average

Trissolcus japonicus (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) has shown promise as a biological control agent for the invasive agricultural and nuisance pest, Halyomorpha halys (Stal) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). In addition to the need for laboratory research colonies, the possibility for rearing T. japonicus for classical or augmentative releases necessitates investigation into efficient rearing protocols with control over timing of production. Cold storage is a means to slow insects’ metabolism and cold temperatures can be used to manipulate when and how many parasitoids are available for use. Conditions of cold storage (i.e., temperature and photoperiod), duration of exposure to cold, nutrition, age, and sex of parasitoids can all affect the success of a cold storage regime. We tested how these factors affected mortality, realized fertility of females, sex of progeny, and development time for cold-stored adult and immature T. japonicus using previously frozen H. halys egg masses. Rearing adult T. japonicus at 8, 13, or 18 °C (10:14 h L:D) significantly increased longevity compared to 23 °C (16:8 h L:D); however, for females reared at 8 °C, 10:14 h L:D, we found sublethal effects on realized fertility and sex of their progeny. Adults with access to food survived at greater levels than those without food. We found high mortality of cold-stored immatures in all the ages and cold storage conditions tested. Additionally, differences in T. japonicus emergence from fresh and frozen H. halys eggs was assessed. This work can be used to compare the costs and benefits of cold storage for T. japonicus and will assist forecasting the emergence and sex of adult parasitoids after T. japonicus are cold stored.

Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura, is one of the most important insect pests of soybean in the north central United States. Management of A. glycines currently relies on applications of broad-spectrum insecticides. However, broad-spectrum insecticides can negatively impact the natural enemies associated with aphids. Selective insecticides, on the other hand, are promising control tactics for reducing the negative impact of insecticide applications. Here, we compared the effects of sulfoxaflor (a new selective insecticide) and broad-spectrum insecticides on A. glycines and predators in a two-year field experiment. We sampled A. glycines and aphid predator populations using visual whole-plant inspection. In addition, sweep-net sampling was performed to monitor predator populations. To evaluate the toxicity of the insecticides on predator populations, laboratory bioassays were performed on Hippodamia convergens Guérin-Méneville, Orius insidiosus (Say), and Chrysoperla rufilabris (Burmeister). Field results showed that sulfoxaflor was as effective as the broad-spectrum insecticide in suppressing soybean aphid populations and was less impactful on predator populations. The laboratory bioassays showed that sulfoxaflor was moderately harmful to O. insidiosus, harmless to slightly harmful to H. convergens, and harmless to C. rufilabris These studies suggest that sulfoxaflor holds promise for improving integration of chemical and biological controls for A. glycines management.

Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) is an invasive species present in numerous agroecosystems in North America. Despite adverse impacts as a threat to native biodiversity, a nuisance household invader and a pest in fruit production, H. axyridis also plays a beneficial role as a major component of assemblages of generalist predators in several agricultural crops. Here, we review the role of H. axyridis as a natural enemy of Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), an invasive pest of soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill (Fabales: Fabaceae), in North America. Harmonia axyridis is often the most abundant predator species attacking A. glycines in soybean agroecosystems. This predator has the potential to both prevent and suppress A. glycines outbreaks. Further studies are needed to fully understand and utilize the potential of H. axyridis as a natural enemy in the management of A. glycines and other agricultural pests in agroecosystems worldwide.

The soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), continues to be the most economically important arthropod pest of soybean in the Midwest. Currently, management tactics for A. glycines rely on scouting and application of broad-spectrum insecticides. However, broad-spectrum insecticides are toxic to most natural enemies of this aphid. Selective insecticides may provide an alternative strategy for suppressing A. glycines populations while conserving populations of its natural enemies. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the potential lethal and sublethal effects of sulfoxaflor (a relatively new selective insecticide), to 2 of this pest's natural enemies, Chrysoperla rufilabris (Burmeister) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) and Hippodamia convergens Guerin-Meneville (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Laboratory bioassays were performed on first instars of both predators with residual toxicity evaluated over time until adult emergence. Parameters evaluated were mortality and developmental time for larvae and pupae, and adult body size. Fecundity also was determined for C. rufilabris. We found that sulfoxaflor was not toxic to first instar C. rufilabris. However, developmental time to adult was significantly delayed after exposure to this insecticide, but fecundity and body size were not negatively affected. For H. convergens, sulfoxaflor at 25% of the field rate was toxic to first instars. No significant differences were found with regard to developmental time and body size. It is important to note that sulfoxaflor, though relatively less toxic than some insecticides, is not entirely without consequence if natural enemies are exposed. The present study emphasizes the importance of examining earlier life stages and potential sublethal effects when evaluating the toxicity of insecticides in the presence of natural enemies.

Background Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines (Hemiptera: Aphididae), remains the most significant soybean insect pest in the North Central Region of the USA. The sustainability of reliance on only a few insecticide groups for this pest is questionable. We evaluate afidopyropen, a novel pyropene insecticide (Group 9D), for efficacy against A. glycines in field and greenhouse experiments and toxicity to common natural enemies in laboratory experiments. Results Across 4 site-years of field experiments and a greenhouse experiment, afidopyropen reduced A. glycines populations similar to commonly used broad-spectrum [i.e. lambda-cyhalothrin (Group 3A) and chlorpyrifos (Group 1B)] insecticides and potential selective insecticides [i.e. sulfoxaflor (Group 4C) and flupyradifurone (Group 4D)]. In the greenhouse, however, A. glycines mortality was delayed slightly for afidopyropen compared to the other insecticides. In laboratory experiments with natural enemies of A. glycines, afidopyropen was not toxic to adult or third instar Hippodamia convergens (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) or adult Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), and was only moderately toxic to Aphelinus certus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Conclusion Afidopyropen is effective against A. glycines and relatively non-toxic to natural enemies, and appears to be an effective option for integrated pest management and insecticide resistance management programs for A. glycines. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Afidopyropen, a novel Group 9D insecticide, has proven effective for management of soybean aphid, Aphis glycines (Hemiptera: Aphididae). However, to ensure continued efficacy of this insecticide, insecticide resistance management programs are needed. The goal of this study was to evaluate baseline susceptibility of several populations of soybean aphid to afidopyropen using leaf-dip bioassays in 2017 and 2018. Overall, mortality of adult soybean aphid varied among populations. Lethal concentrations necessary to kill 50% of a population (LC50) for adults ranged from 0.0013 to 0.40 mg a.i. per liter of afidopyropen. Lethal concentrations necessary to kill 70% of a population (LC70) of adults ranged from 0.136 to 13.1 mg a.i. per liter of afidopyropen. Afidopyropen was effective against populations resistant to pyrethroid insecticides, suggesting a lack of cross-resistance between afidopyropen and pyrethroids. Furthermore, afidopyropen was effective against nymphs of soybean aphid with concentrations ranging from 0.0285 to 54.45 mg a.i. per liter of afidopyropen causing 100% mortality by 6 days after exposure. The results reported here can be used for establishment of programs to monitor for development of resistance to this insecticide by soybean aphid.