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Combined use of action observation and motor imagery (AOMI) is an increasingly popular motor-simulation intervention, which involves observing movements on video while simultaneously imagining the feeling of movement execution. Measuring and reporting participant imagery-ability characteristics are essential in motor-simulation research, but no measure of AOMI ability currently exists. Accordingly, the AOMI Ability Questionnaire (AOMI-AQ) was developed to address this gap in the literature. In Study 1, two hundred eleven participants completed the AOMI-AQ and the kinesthetic imagery subscales of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 and Vividness of Motor Imagery Questionnaire-2. Following exploratory factor analysis, an 8-item AOMI-AQ was found to correlate positively with existing motor-imagery measures. In Study 2, one hundred seventy-four participants completed the AOMI-AQ for a second time after a period of 7–10 days. Results indicate a good test–retest reliability for the AOMI-AQ. The new AOMI-AQ measure provides a valid and reliable tool for researchers and practitioners wishing to assess AOMI ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive states like motor imagery (MI; simulating actions without overtly executing them) share a close correspondence with action execution, and hence, activate the motor system in a similar way. However, as people age, reduction in specific cognitive abilities like motor action simulation and action planning/prediction are commonly experienced. The present study examined the effect of visual–spatial processing for both typical and challenging upper-limb movements using the Hand Laterality Judgment Task (HLJT), in which participants were asked to judge whether the depicted hand is a left or right hand. Several main findings emerged: (1) Compared to younger adults, older adults exhibited slower responses and greater error rates in both Experiment 1 and 2. This suggests that visual–spatial transformations undergo alterations with age; (2) Older adults displayed higher error rates with realistic hands at both back and palm viewpoints of the hands compared to younger adults. However, this pattern did not hold for response times; (3) Participants responded faster to medial hand orientations (i.e., closer to the midline of the body) compared to lateral hand orientations (i.e., farther from the midline of the body) for palm-views in both Experiment 1 and Experiment 2. Given that we observed better performance on medial orientations compared to lateral orientations, this suggests that participants follow the same motor rules and biomechanical constraints of the represented movement. Novel information is provided about differences in individuals' use of strategies (visual vs. motor imagery) to solve the HLJT for both mannequin and real hands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive states like motor imagery (MI; simulating actions without overtly executing them) share a close correspondence with action execution, and hence, activate the motor system in a similar way. However, as people age, reduction in specific cognitive abilities like motor action simulation and action planning/prediction are commonly experienced. The present study examined the effect of visual–spatial processing for both typical and challenging upper-limb movements using the Hand Laterality Judgment Task (HLJT), in which participants were asked to judge whether the depicted hand is a left or right hand. Several main findings emerged: (1) Compared to younger adults, older adults exhibited slower responses and greater error rates in both Experiment 1 and 2. This suggests that visual–spatial transformations undergo alterations with age; (2) Older adults displayed higher error rates with realistic hands at both back and palm viewpoints of the hands compared to younger adults. However, this pattern did not hold for response times; (3) Participants responded faster to medial hand orientations (i.e., closer to the midline of the body) compared to lateral hand orientations (i.e., farther from the midline of the body) for palm-views in both Experiment 1 and Experiment 2. Given that we observed better performance on medial orientations compared to lateral orientations, this suggests that participants follow the same motor rules and biomechanical constraints of the represented movement. Novel information is provided about differences in individuals’ use of strategies (visual vs. motor imagery) to solve the HLJT for both mannequin and real hands.

Seeing large or small objects in a choice-reaction task facilitates power and precision grip, respectively. According to the motor-simulation account, this congruity effect reflects an automatic access to object representation, including the grip usually associated to the object. Alternatively, this effect might come from an overlap between magnitude codes of the manipulable objects and those of the response's outcomes. In Experiment 1, participants saw objects usually grasped with power or precision grip and had to mimic these gestures on a specific device. Large-switch responses (e.g., power grip) always produced a high-pitch tone (i.e., a small magnitude perceptual outcome) while small-switch responses (e.g., precision grip) always produced a low-pitch tone (i.e., a large magnitude perceptual outcome). We also manipulated the instructions asking one group to perform specific grips, while the other had to produce specific pitch tones. Even if results revealed shorter RTs in the object-response compatible condition compared to the non-compatible condition for both conditions, they also revealed a decrease of the congruity effect in the tone-instruction group (+ 13 ms) compared to the switch-instruction group (+ 25 ms). We conducted a second experiment based on the tone-instruction group but the response device was installed horizontally. Thus, the grasping component of the responses was removed as in Heurley et al. (2020). Results revealed a congruity effect supporting the magnitude coding account instead of the motor-simulation account. Results also seem to support a kind of permeability of the coding to the influence of intentional processes related to the processing of action outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Motor Imagery (MI) is when an individual imagines performing an action without physically executing that action and is thought to involve similar neural processes used for execution of physical movement. As motor coordination difficulties are common in autistic individuals it is possible that these may affect MI ability. The aim of this systematic review was to assess the current knowledge around MI ability in autistic individuals. Methods: A systematic search was conducted for articles published before September 2023, following PRISMA guidance. Search engines were PsycINFO, PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Wiley Online Library and PsyArXiv. Inclusion criteria included: (a) Original peer-reviewed and pre-print publications; (b) Autistic and a non-autistic group (c) Implicit or explicit imagery tasks (d) Behavioral, neurophysiological or self-rating measures, (e) Written in the English language. Exclusion criteria were (a) Articles only about MI or autism (b) Articles where the autism data is not presented separately (c) Articles on action observation, recognition or imitation only (d) Review articles. A narrative synthesis of the evidence was conducted. Results: Sixteen studies across fourteen articles were included. Tasks were divided into implicit (unconscious) or explicit (conscious) MI. The implicit tasks used either hand (6) or body (4) rotation tasks. Explicit tasks consisted of perspective taking tasks (3), a questionnaire (1) and explicit instructions to imagine performing a movement (2). A MI strategy was apparent for the hand rotation task in autistic children, although may have been more challenging. Evidence was mixed and inconclusive for the remaining task types due to the varied range of different tasks and, measures conducted and design limitations. Further limitations included a sex bias toward males and the hand rotation task only being conducted in children. Discussion: There is currently an incomplete understanding of MI ability in autistic individuals. The field would benefit from a battery of fully described implicit and explicit MI tasks, conducted across the same groups of autistic children and adults. Improved knowledge around MI in autistic individuals is important for understanding whether MI techniques may benefit motor coordination in some autistic people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionMotor Imagery (MI) is when an individual imagines performing an action without physically executing that action and is thought to involve similar neural processes used for execution of physical movement. As motor coordination difficulties are common in autistic individuals it is possible that these may affect MI ability. The aim of this systematic review was to assess the current knowledge around MI ability in autistic individuals.MethodsA systematic search was conducted for articles published before September 2023, following PRISMA guidance. Search engines were PsycINFO, PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Wiley Online Library and PsyArXiv. Inclusion criteria included: (a) Original peer-reviewed and pre-print publications; (b) Autistic and a non-autistic group (c) Implicit or explicit imagery tasks (d) Behavioral, neurophysiological or self-rating measures, (e) Written in the English language. Exclusion criteria were (a) Articles only about MI or autism (b) Articles where the autism data is not presented separately (c) Articles on action observation, recognition or imitation only (d) Review articles. A narrative synthesis of the evidence was conducted.ResultsSixteen studies across fourteen articles were included. Tasks were divided into implicit (unconscious) or explicit (conscious) MI. The implicit tasks used either hand (6) or body (4) rotation tasks. Explicit tasks consisted of perspective taking tasks (3), a questionnaire (1) and explicit instructions to imagine performing a movement (2). A MI strategy was apparent for the hand rotation task in autistic children, although may have been more challenging. Evidence was mixed and inconclusive for the remaining task types due to the varied range of different tasks and, measures conducted and design limitations. Further limitations included a sex bias toward males and the hand rotation task only being conducted in children.DiscussionThere is currently an incomplete understanding of MI ability in autistic individuals. The field would benefit from a battery of fully described implicit and explicit MI tasks, conducted across the same groups of autistic children and adults. Improved knowledge around MI in autistic individuals is important for understanding whether MI techniques may benefit motor coordination in some autistic people.

Growing evidence has revealed the crucial role of motor simulation and spatial perspective-taking in action language. However, there is still a lack of understanding of how motor and spatial processes interact when there are multiple actors involved, and if embodied processes are consistent across different cultures. To address this gap, we examined the interaction between motor simulation and spatial perspective-taking in action-sentences comprehension, along with the consistency of embodied processes across cultures. We collected data from Italian and US English speakers using an online sentence-picture verification task. The participants completed four conditions: two congruent (i.e., the participant is the agent in the sentence and the photo; the agent is someone else interacting with the participant in both the sentence and the picture) and two incongruent (i.e., the agents of the sentence and the picture do not match). The results show that when the perspective of the picture matched that described in the sentence-processing reaction times (RTs) were faster than in the incongruent conditions. In the congruent conditions where the agent is someone else, RTs were slower compared to the condition where the participant is the agent. This has been interpreted as claiming that motor simulation and perspective-taking are independent processes interacting during sentence comprehension (e.g., motor simulation is always run in the role of the agent, but we can adopt multiple perspectives depending on the pronouns and the contextual cues). Furthermore, Bayesian analysis provided evidence that embodied processing of action language entwines a common mechanism, suggesting cross-cultural consistency of embodied processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moebius syndrome (MBS) is characterized by the congenital absence or underdevelopment of cranial nerves VII and VI, leading to facial palsy and impaired lateral eye movements. As a result, MBS individuals cannot produce facial expressions and did not develop motor programs for facial expressions. In the latest model of sensorimotor simulation, an iterative communication between somatosensory, motor/premotor cortices, and visual regions has been proposed, which should allow more efficient discriminations among subtle facial expressions. Accordingly, individuals with congenital facial motor disability, specifically with MBS, should exhibit atypical communication within this network. Here, we aimed to test this facet of the sensorimotor simulation models. We estimated the functional connectivity between the visual cortices for face processing and the sensorimotor cortices in healthy and MBS individuals. To this aim, we studied the strength of beta band functional connectivity between these two systems using high-density EEG, combined with a change detection task with facial expressions (and a control condition involving non-face stimuli). The results supported our hypothesis such that when discriminating subtle facial expressions, participants affected by congenital facial palsy (compared to healthy controls) showed reduced connectivity strength between sensorimotor regions and visual regions for face processing. This effect was absent for the condition with non-face stimuli. These findings support sensorimotor simulation models and the communication between sensorimotor and visual areas during subtle facial expression processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moebius syndrome (MBS) is characterized by the congenital absence or underdevelopment of cranial nerves VII and VI, leading to facial palsy and impaired lateral eye movements. As a result, MBS individuals cannot produce facial expressions and did not develop motor programs for facial expressions. In the latest model of sensorimotor simulation, an iterative communication between somatosensory, motor/premotor cortices, and visual regions has been proposed, which should allow more efficient discriminations among subtle facial expressions. Accordingly, individuals with congenital facial motor disability, specifically with MBS, should exhibit atypical communication within this network. Here, we aimed to test this facet of the sensorimotor simulation models. We estimated the functional connectivity between the visual cortices for face processing and the sensorimotor cortices in healthy and MBS individuals. To this aim, we studied the strength of beta band functional connectivity between these two systems using high-density EEG, combined with a change detection task with facial expressions (and a control condition involving non-face stimuli). The results supported our hypothesis such that when discriminating subtle facial expressions, participants affected by congenital facial palsy (compared to healthy controls) showed reduced connectivity strength between sensorimotor regions and visual regions for face processing. This effect was absent for the condition with non-face stimuli. These findings support sensorimotor simulation models and the communication between sensorimotor and visual areas during subtle facial expression processing.

Embodied cognition theories propose that higher-order cognitive functions are grounded in the activity of cerebral systems supporting lower-level sensorimotor interactions between the body and the environment. However, the way in which sensorimotor body representations affect higher cognitive functions, such as cognitive control, is still not defined. Here we investigate in two Experiments whether the bodily content of visual stimuli and their stimulus-response congruency modulate motor inhibition, i.e., a key function of cognitive control. Participants completed an online manual Go/No-Go task on visual stimuli belonging to three categories (bodily-related: a right hand, and non-bodily related: a shape and a leaf) (Exp 1). Results show slower reaction times and lower accuracy in Go trials for hand compared to non-body images. We further investigated how the degree of stimulus-response congruency (left-hand vs right-hand stimuli) modulates the inhibitory resources (Exp 2). The data from the two experiments were compared to test whether the category (i.e., body vs. non-body images; Exp 1) or sensorimotor representations (i.e., hand stimulus-response congruency; Exp 2) affect inhibitory mechanisms differently. Results show stronger interference with high levels of congruency and support that bodily content influences response inhibition performance in accordance with an embodied view of cognitive functions.

Embodied theories of cognition emphasize the central role of sensorimotor transformations in the representation of others' actions. Support for these theories is derived from the discovery of the mirror neuron system (MNS) in primates, from noninvasive techniques in humans, and from a limited number of intracranial studies. To understand the neural dynamics of the human MNS, more studies with precise spatial and temporal resolutions are essential. We used electrocorticography to define activation patterns in sensorimotor, parietal and/or frontal neuronal populations, during a viewing and grasping task. Our results show robust high gamma activation for both conditions in classic MNS sites. Furthermore, we provide novel evidence for 2 different populations of neurons: sites that were only active for viewing and grasping ("pure mirroring") and sites that were also active between viewing and grasping, and perhaps serve a more general attentional role. Lastly, a subgroup of parietal electrodes showed earlier peaks than all other regions. These results highlight the complexity of spatial-temporal patterns within the MNS and provide a critical link between single-unit research in monkeys and noninvasive techniques in human.

Influential theoretical models argue that an internal simulation mechanism (motor or sensorimotor simulation) supports the recognition of facial expressions. However, despite numerous converging sources of evidence, recent studies testing patients with congenital facial palsy (i.e. Moebius syndrome) seem to refute these theoretical models. However, these results do not consider the principles of neuroplasticity and degeneracy that could support the involvement of an alternative neural processing pathway in these patients. In the present study, we tested healthy participants and participants with Moebius syndrome in a highly sensitive facial expression discrimination task and concomitant high-density electroencephalographic recording. The results, both at the scalp and source levels, indicate the activation of two different pathways of facial expression processing in healthy participants and participants with Moebius syndrome, compatible, respectively, with a dorsal pathway that includes premotor areas and a ventral pathway. Therefore, these results support the reactivation of sensorimotor representations of facial expressions (i.e. simulation) in healthy subjects, in the place of an alternative processing pathway in subjects with congenital facial palsy. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cracking the laugh code: laughter through the lens of biology, psychology and neuroscience'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review delves into the remarkable career and scientific contributions of Frans de Waal, a renowned figure in the field of ethology, primatology with important implications for the field of social neurosciences. Rooted in the Dutch tradition of ethology, influenced by luminaries like Niko Tinbergen and Jan Van Hooff, De Waal's career began with groundbreaking research on chimpanzees, which questioned long-held beliefs about dominance and aggression in animal behavior. His work, epitomized in his influential books, such as "Chimpanzee Politics", "The ape and the sushi master", "The age of empathy", not only revolutionized scientific thinking but also ignited discussions about empathy, morality, and complex cognitive functions in animals. De Waal's interdisciplinary approach extended to neuroscience, particularly in understanding empathy, contributing to the development of an original model: the Perception-Action Model (PAM). The fundamental concept of PAM is that even the most intricate forms of empathy stem from basic neural mechanisms of action-perception, such as mirror neurons. Some behavioral phenomena like motor mimicry and emotional contagion arise from a direct neuroanatomical network activity where sensory information about others' emotional states triggers corresponding behavioral responses. Intriguingly, even the most intricate forms of empathy such as concern, consolation and targeted helping, may have evolved from basic neural mechanisms of action-perception.Through these investigations and theoretical explorations, he advocated for a bottom-up approach to comprehending the cognitive abilities of animals. This approach challenged conventional anthropocentric perspectives and underscored the interconnected emotional and cognitive terrain shared among humans and other species. Beyond academia, De Waal's work has profound implications for how we perceive and interact with animals. By debunking notions of human exceptionalism, he highlights the rich tapestry of emotions that bind all living beings. Through his efforts, De Waal has not only advanced our scientific understanding of animal minds but also fostered a more profound appreciation for the depth of emotional connections across species., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Across languages, certain syllables are systematically preferred to others (e.g., plaf > ptaf). Here, we examine whether these preferences arise from motor simulation. In the simulation account, ill-formed syllables (e.g., ptaf) are disliked because their motor plans are harder to simulate. Four experiments compared sensitivity to the syllable structure of labial- vs. corona-initial speech stimuli (e.g., plaf > pnaf > ptaf vs. traf > tmaf > tpaf); meanwhile, participants (English vs. Russian speakers) lightly bit on their lips or tongues. Results suggested that the perception of these stimuli was selectively modulated by motor stimulation (e.g., stimulating the tongue differentially affected sensitivity to labial vs. coronal stimuli). Remarkably, stimulation did not affect sensitivity to syllable structure. This dissociation suggests that some (e.g., phonetic) aspects of speech perception are reliant on motor simulation, hence, embodied; others (e.g., phonology), however, are possibly abstract. These conclusions speak to the role of embodiment in the language system, and the separation between phonology and phonetics, specifically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Covert speech is accompanied by a subjective multisensory experience with auditory and kinaesthetic components. An influential hypothesis states that these sensory percepts result from a simulation of the corresponding motor action that relies on the same internal models recruited for the control of overt speech. This simulationist view raises the question of how it is possible to imagine speech without executing it. In this perspective, we discuss the possible role(s) played by motor inhibition during covert speech production. We suggest that considering covert speech as an inhibited form of overt speech maps naturally to the purported progressive internalization of overt speech during childhood. We further argue that the role of motor inhibition may differ widely across different forms of covert speech (e.g., condensed vs. expanded covert speech) and that considering this variety helps reconciling seemingly contradictory findings from the neuroimaging literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Covert speech is accompanied by a subjective multisensory experience with auditory and kinaesthetic components. An influential hypothesis states that these sensory percepts result from a simulation of the corresponding motor action that relies on the same internal models recruited for the control of overt speech. This simulationist view raises the question of how it is possible to imagine speech without executing it. In this perspective, we discuss the possible role(s) played by motor inhibition during covert speech production. We suggest that considering covert speech as an inhibited form of overt speech maps naturally to the purported progressive internalization of overt speech during childhood. We further argue that the role of motor inhibition may differ widely across different forms of covert speech (e.g., condensed vs. expanded covert speech) and that considering this variety helps reconciling seemingly contradictory findings from the neuroimaging literature.

The ostensive-inferential model is a model of communication, an alternative to the code model of communication, based on pragmatic competence: it explains human communication in terms of expression and recognition of informative and communicative intentions, founding comprehension on the distinction between literal meaning and the speaker's meaning. Through informative intentions we try to make evident the content of a message to a receiver, or to make evident what we want to communicate to him/her: communicative intentions are used to make evident the very fact that we intend to communicate. One hypothesis is that ostensive-inferential communication is what makes human language possible. Since an extensive literature has highlighted the role of the Theory of Mind in ostensive-inferential communication, this hypothesis fits with the idea that a mechanism for mentalizing underlies human communication. The aim of the present paper is to stress the role of lower-level mechanisms, specifically of motor simulation, in the recognition of informative and communicative intentions, in order to outline an embodied account of ostensive communication. Specifically, the hypothesis is that this process is involved in language acquisition during development, and that it plays a role in the associative learning process involved in language acquisition during childhood. To this aim, in future research it may be useful to test the involvement of motor simulation (specifically, phono-articulatory and semantic) in the recognition of informative and communicative intentions in toddlers. Since some models of language evolution focus on the role of motor simulation, a supplementary goal is to deepen its role in the biological evolution of language, focusing on the specific link between motor simulation and intentions in the framework of ostensive-inferential model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies show that people can recognize their own movements,such as their own walking (presented in silhouette using pointlights), their own drawing (presented as a moving point light),own clapping, and their own piano playing. We extend thisresult to proprioceptive control, showing that people canrecognize their own eye movements, when presented as just apoint moving against a black background. Eye movementswere recorded using a wearable eye tracking glass, whileparticipants executed four tasks. A week later, participantswere shown these videos, alongside another person's videos,for each task, and asked to recognize their own movements.Males recognized their own eye movements significantlyabove chance, but only for tasks with large and familiar bodymovements. Females performed below chance in these tasks.We argue that the standard common coding/motor simulationmodel does not account for this result, and propose anextension where eye movements and body movements arestrongly coupled. In this model, eye movements automaticallytrigger covert motor activation, and thus participate directly inmotor planning, simulations and the sense of agency

People can decide whether the image of a hand represents a left or a right one. The laterality judgment mainly implies mentally imaging own hand movement (motor simulation) if the stimulus represents a palm, or analysing visual cues, as hand asymmetry, if the stimulus reproduces a dorsum. Here, by capitalizing on evidence underscoring the key role of thumb-palm complex in motor dexterity of human hand, we hypothesise that activation of motor or visual processes when judging hand laterality is due to the different relevance of palm-thumb and dorsum-thumb combinations to hand action. To test this thumb-anchored strategy, in a laterality judgment experiment, we concurrently manipulated the thumb position (flexed or extended) with respect to palm and dorsum, and the human likeness of the hand shape (influencing the salience of the thumb with respect to the hand shape). The main results demonstrated that viewing the flexed thumb from palm or dorsum elicited motor simulation, while viewing the extended thumb activated motor simulation when combined with palm but not dorsum. The present data highlight the pivotal role of the thumb in hand laterality judgments, consistent with its key role in human in-hand manipulation.

• Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) results in impaired movement abilities. • Neurological deficits exist in DCD during motor imagery and action observation. • Motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) improve motor function in DCD. • Combined AOMI can further enhance skill acquisition in children with DCD. • Combined AOMI may work by targeting the neural deficits associated with DCD. Action observation (AO) and motor imagery (MI) have been used separately across different populations to alleviate movement impairment. Recently these two forms of covert motor simulation have been combined (combined action observation and motor imagery; AOMI), resulting in greater neurophysiological activity in the motor system, and more favourable behavioural outcomes when compared to independent AO and MI. This review aims to outline how some of the neural deficits associated with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are evident during AO and MI, and highlight how these motor simulation techniques have been used independently to improve motor skill learning in children in this population. The growing body of evidence indicating that AOMI is superior to the independent use of either AO and MI is then synthesised and discussed in the context of children with DCD. To conclude, recommendations to optimise the delivery of AOMI for children with DCD are provided and future avenues for research are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of the advertisement industry, consumers are surrounded by increasing numbers of different types of visual stimuli (e.g., images on billboards, websites, and newspapers or videos on TV and social media). The present research aims to explore the effect of the connection between visual stimuli and objects in consumers' hands on purchase intention based on motor simulation theory and motor fluency. The results of two studies demonstrate that when right-handed consumers review an image of food with tableware on the right (vs. left) side, they will have higher purchase intention for the food, while the effect reverses when their right hand is under high motor resource load. In addition, when right-handed consumers review an image of food with tableware on the right side and have nothing (vs. an object) in their right hand, they will have higher purchase intention for the food. However, if the image does not include tableware, placing tableware (vs. nothing or other objects) in the right hand of the consumers will induce higher purchase intention for the food. Our findings not only contribute to the literature on motor simulation, motor fluency, and motor resources but also provide valid insights for managerial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cerebral vascular accidents (strokes) are a leading cause of motor deficiency in millions of people worldwide. While a complex range of biological systems is affected following a stroke, in this paper we focus primarily on impairments of the motor system and the recovery of motor skills. We briefly review research that has assessed two types of mental practice, which are currently recommended in stroke rehabilitation. Namely, action observation (AO) therapy and motor imagery (MI) training. We highlight the strengths and limitations in both techniques, before making the case for combined action observation and motor imagery (AO + MI) therapy as a potentially more effective method. This is based on a growing body of multimodal brain imaging research showing advantages for combined AO + MI instructions over the two separate methods of AO and MI. Finally, we offer a series of suggestions and considerations for how combined AO + MI therapy could be employed in neurorehabilitation.

Research on visuospatial memory has shown that egocentric (subject‐to‐object) and allocentric (object‐to‐object) reference frames are connected to categorical (non‐metric) and coordinate (metric) spatial relations, and that motor resources are recruited especially when processing spatial information in peripersonal (within arm reaching) than extrapersonal (outside arm reaching) space. In order to perform our daily‐life activities, these spatial components cooperate along a continuum from recognition‐related (e.g., recognizing stimuli) to action‐related (e.g., reaching stimuli) purposes. Therefore, it is possible that some types of spatial representations rely more on action/motor processes than others. Here, we explored the role of motor resources in the combinations of these visuospatial memory components. A motor interference paradigm was adopted in which participants had their arms bent behind their back or free during a spatial memory task. This task consisted in memorizing triads of objects and then verbally judging what was the object: (1) closest to/farthest from the participant (egocentric coordinate); (2) to the right/left of the participant (egocentric categorical); (3) closest to/farthest from a target object (allocentric coordinate); and (4) on the right/left of a target object (allocentric categorical). The triads appeared in participants' peripersonal (Experiment 1) or extrapersonal (Experiment 2) space. The results of Experiment 1 showed that motor interference selectively damaged egocentric‐coordinate judgements but not the other spatial combinations. The results of Experiment 2 showed that the interference effect disappeared when the objects were in the extrapersonal space. A third follow‐up study using a within‐subject design confirmed the overall pattern of results. Our findings provide evidence that motor resources play an important role in the combination of coordinate spatial relations and egocentric representations in peripersonal space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We performed three experiments to investigate whether adjectives can modulate the sensorimotor activation elicited by nouns. In Experiment 1, nouns of graspable objects were used as stimuli. Participants had to decide if each noun referred to a natural or artifact, by performing either a precision or a power reach‐to‐grasp movement. Response grasp could be compatible or incompatible with the grasp typically used to manipulate the objects to which the nouns referred. The results revealed faster reaction times (RTs) in compatible than in incompatible trials. In Experiment 2, the nouns were combined with adjectives expressing either disadvantageous information about object graspability (e.g., sharp) or information about object color (e.g., reddish). No difference in RTs between compatible and incompatible conditions was found when disadvantageous adjectives were used. Conversely, a compatibility effect occurred when color adjectives were combined with nouns referring to natural objects. Finally, in Experiment 3 the nouns were combined with adjectives expressing tactile or shape proprieties of the objects (e.g., long or smooth). Results revealed faster RTs in compatible than in incompatible condition for both noun categories. Taken together, our findings suggest that adjectives can shape the sensorimotor activation elicited by nouns of graspable objects, highlighting that language simulation goes beyond the single‐word level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combined action observation and motor imagery (AO + MI) can improve movement execution (ME) in healthy adults and certain patient populations. However, it is unclear how the specificity of the observation component during AO + MI influences ME. As generalised observation could result in more flexible AO + MI rehabilitation programmes, this study investigated whether observing typing of target words (specific condition) or non-matching words (general condition) during AO + MI would have different effects on keyboard typing in healthy young adults. In Experiment 1, 51 students imagined typing a target word while watching typing videos that were either specific to the target word or general. There were no differences in typing execution between AO + MI conditions, though participants typed more slowly after both AO + MI conditions compared with no observation or imagery. Experiment 2 repeated Experiment 1 in 20 students, but with a faster stimulus speed in the AO + MI conditions and increased cognitive difficulty in the control condition. The results showed that the slowed typing after AO + MI was likely due to a strong influence of task-switching between imagery and execution, as well as an automatic imitation effect. Both experiments demonstrate that general and specific AO + MI comparably affect ME. In addition, slower ME following both AO + MI and a challenging cognitive task provides support for the motor-cognitive model of MI., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Neuroimaging studies show that the brain articulatory motor system is activated during speech perception. These results, however, cannot determine whether the motor system is engaged in motor simulation (e.g., lip movement) or in non-motor computations. To gauge the causal role of the articulatory motor system, here we examine the effect of mechanical stimulation. Participants heard speech tokens, ambiguous with respect to voicing—either labial (ba/pa) or coronal (da/ta)—while lightly biting on either the lips or tongue. Compared to incongruent stimulation (e.g., lips, with da/ta), congruent stimulation (e.g., tongue, with da/ta) shifted the voicing percepts, and improved discrimination sensitivity (d'). These results demonstrate that adults engage the articulatory motor system in speech perception even when it is irrelevant to response. The convergence with transcranial magnetic stimulation experiments suggests that speech perception engages articulatory action. These conclusions illuminate the links between embodiment and cognition.

When listening to music, people are excited by the musical cues immediately before rewarding passages. More generally, listeners attend to the antecedent cues of a salient musical event irrespective of its emotional valence. The present study used functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the behavioral and cognitive mechanisms underlying the cued anticipation of the main theme’s recurrence in sonata form. Half of the main themes in the musical stimuli were of a joyful character, half a tragic character. Activity in the premotor cortex suggests that around the main theme’s recurrence, the participants tended to covertly hum along with music. The anterior thalamus, pre-supplementary motor area (preSMA), posterior cerebellum, inferior frontal junction (IFJ), and auditory cortex showed increased activity for the antecedent cues of the themes, relative to the middle-last part of the themes. Increased activity in the anterior thalamus may reflect its role in guiding attention towards stimuli that reliably predict important outcomes. The preSMA and posterior cerebellum may support sequence processing, fine-grained auditory imagery, and fine adjustments to humming according to auditory inputs. The IFJ might orchestrate the attention allocation to motor simulation and goal-driven attention. These findings highlight the attention control and audiomotor components of musical anticipation.

• Bodily stimuli have unique mnemonic features; e.g., recalled via action recognition or execution. • Memory processing of bodily stimuli is disrupted by additional bodily operations; e.g., seeing bodies. • Memory for bodily stimuli recruits sensorimotor brain areas; with a likely role in motor simulations. • Encoding and storing others' bodies partly recruits our own cortical sensorimotor representations. • The sensorimotor system supports the memory storage of visually perceived bodily stimuli. Examining the processing of others' body-related information in the perceivers' brain (action observation) is a key topic in cognitive neuroscience. However, what happens beyond the perceptual stage, when the body is not within view and it is transformed into an associative form that can be stored, updated, and later recalled, remains poorly understood. Here we examine neurobehavioural evidence on the memory processing of visually perceived bodily stimuli (dynamic actions and images of bodies). The reviewed studies indicate that encoding and maintaining bodily stimuli in memory recruits the sensorimotor system. This process arises when bodily stimuli are either recalled through action recognition or reproduction. Interestingly, the memory capacity for these stimuli is rather limited: only 2 or 3 bodily stimuli can be simultaneously held in memory. Moreover, this process is disrupted by increasing concurrent bodily operations; i.e., moving one's body, seeing or memorising additional bodies. Overall, the evidence suggests that the neural circuitry allowing us to move and feel ourselves supports the encoding, retention, and memory recall of others' visually perceived bodies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motor simulation (MS) interventions incorporating motor imagery (MI), and more recently action observation (AO), are readily accepted as effective interventions to enhance motor skill performance. Existing models in the MS literature fail to consider the entire spectrum of MS interventions, focusing on MI or AO alone. This paper examines the theoretical basis and current understanding of MS efficacy, and introduces a novel, conceptual, Motor Simulation and Performance Model (MSPM) representing the performance improvements predicted to be associated with engaging with MS across expertise levels. The MSPM also outlines the multiple factors which regulate the efficacy of MS interventions. Based on the available evidence, the model suggests that MI will have a greater relative effect on performance as expertise increases, AO will have a greater effect in low skilled compared to high skilled performers, and that combined AO and MI (AO + MI) will be more effective than either MI or AO in isolation. The MSPM also depicts the additive effect of physical practice in conjunction with MS interventions. The MSPM represents for the first time the relative effects of various methods of motor learning based on evidence provided by the existing literature. It also highlights areas of research requiring further attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Witt and Proffit (Human Perception and Performance, 34 (6), 1479–1492, 2008) hypothesized that when people intend to reach a target, they run a motor simulation allowing them to anticipate potential reaching constraints and outcomes, which in turn affects spatial perception. They reported that participants estimated targets to be closer to them when they intended to use a reach-extending tool, but only when they did not perform a concurrent motor task. The authors concluded that the concurrent motor task prevented the simulation of tool-use and its effect on perception. Reported here is a replication that extends their work through an additional control group and a larger sample size. Our results failed to support either the role of motor simulation in the tool-use effect on distance estimation or the tool-use effect itself. Moreover, a reanalysis of Witt and Proffitt's data suggested that they should have been more nuanced in their own conclusions. Further replications are needed in order to elucidate the existence, nature, boundary conditions, and underlying mechanisms of the action constraint effects on space perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the contribution of social processes to pain perception is well documented, surprisingly little is known about the influence of pain on social perception. In particular, an important question is how pain modulates the processing of other people's actions. To address this question, the current study tests, using automatic imitation, the hypothesis that pain interferes with motor simulation-that is, the processing of observed actions in the motor system. Participants in both experiments performed an automatic imitation task requiring them to abduct their index or little finger while they saw someone else performing either a congruent or incongruent action. Automatic imitation was measured in a pain-free context, a context where pain was coupled to the execution of a movement (experiment 1), and a context where pain occurred randomly (experiment 2). The results revealed that automatic imitation, indexed by slower responses on incongruent compared with congruent trials, was reduced when experiencing pain, both when pain was linked to movement execution and when it was not. Thus, the current study shows that pain leads to reduced motor processing of others' behavior and, as such, has important implications for understanding the social difficulties associated with pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers from multiple disciplines have studied the simulation of actions through motor imagery, action observation, or their combination. Procedures used in these studies vary considerably between research groups, and no standardized approach to reporting experimental protocols has been proposed. This has led to under-reporting of critical details, impairing the assessment, replication, synthesis, and potential clinical translation of effects. We provide an overview of issues related to the reporting of information in action simulation studies, and discuss the benefits of standardized reporting. We propose a series of checklists that identify key details of research protocols to include when reporting action simulation studies. Each checklist comprises A) essential methodological details, B) essential details that are relevant to a specific mode of action simulation, and C) further points that may be useful on a case-by-case basis. We anticipate that the use of these guidelines will improve the understanding, reproduction, and synthesis of studies using action simulation, and enhance the translation of research using motor imagery and action observation to applied and clinical settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Motor Imagery (MI) refers to mental simulation of a motor action without producing any overt movement. Previous studies showed that children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy (UCP) are impaired in implicit MI, as demonstrated by the performance of Hand Laterality Judgment tasks. The aim of this study was to examine the specificity of explicit MI deficits in UCP children.Methods: A group of UCP children (n = 10; aged 9–14) performed a mental chronometry task consisting in grasping an object and placing it into a container, or in imagining to perform the same action. As control, a group of typically developing (TD) children, matched by age, performed the same task. Movement durations for executed and imagined trials were recorded. A subgroup of 7 UCP children and 10 TD children also underwent a session of functional MRI to examine the activation of parieto-frontal areas typically associated to MI processes, during the imagination of reaching-grasping actions performed with the paretic hand.Results: Behavioral results revealed the existence of a correlation between executed and imagined movement durations both in TD and UCP groups. Moreover, the regression analysis in TD children showed that higher scores in mental chronometry tasks were positively correlated to increased bilateral activation of the intraparietal sulcus (IPS), superior parietal lobule (SPL), and dorsal premotor (PMd) cortex. A similar analysis revealed in the UCP group a positive correlation between a higher score in the mental chronometry task and bilateral activations of IPS, and to activation of contralesional, right PMd, and putamen during imagination of grasping movements.Conclusions: These results provide new insights on the relationship between MI capacity and motor deficits in UCP children, suggesting the possibility of the use of explicit MI training to improve patient's upper limb motor functions.

Background: Motor Imagery (MI) refers to mental simulation of a motor action without producing any overt movement. Previous studies showed that children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy (UCP) are impaired in implicit MI, as demonstrated by the performance of Hand Laterality Judgment tasks. The aim of this study was to examine the specificity of explicit MI deficits in UCP children. Methods: A group of UCP children (n = 10; aged 9–14) performed a mental chronometry task consisting in grasping an object and placing it into a container, or in imagining to perform the same action. As control, a group of typically developing (TD) children, matched by age, performed the same task. Movement durations for executed and imagined trials were recorded. A subgroup of 7 UCP children and 10 TD children also underwent a session of functional MRI to examine the activation of parieto-frontal areas typically associated to MI processes, during the imagination of reaching-grasping actions performed with the paretic hand. Results: Behavioral results revealed the existence of a correlation between executed and imagined movement durations both in TD and UCP groups. Moreover, the regression analysis in TD children showed that higher scores in mental chronometry tasks were positively correlated to increased bilateral activation of the intraparietal sulcus (IPS), superior parietal lobule (SPL), and dorsal premotor (PMd) cortex. A similar analysis revealed in the UCP group a positive correlation between a higher score in the mental chronometry task and bilateral activations of IPS, and to activation of contralesional, right PMd, and putamen during imagination of grasping movements. Conclusions: These results provide new insights on the relationship between MI capacity and motor deficits in UCP children, suggesting the possibility of the use of explicit MI training to improve patient's upper limb motor functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People engage in simulation when reading literary narratives. In this study, we tried to pinpoint how different kinds of simulation (perceptual and motor simulation, mentalising) affect reading behaviour. Eye-tracking (gaze durations, regression probability) and questionnaire data were collected from 102 participants, who read three literary short stories. In a pre-test, 90 additional participants indicated which parts of the stories were high in one of the three kinds of simulation-eliciting content. The results show that motor simulation reduces gaze duration (faster reading), whereas perceptual simulation and mentalising increase gaze duration (slower reading). Individual differences in the effect of simulation on gaze duration were found, which were related to individual differences in aspects of story world absorption and story appreciation. These findings suggest fundamental differences between different kinds of simulation and confirm the role of simulation in absorption and appreciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary This paper depicts an approach aiming to allow individuals with orthopedic trauma injuries to optimize recovery and safely return to daily life. The core of this approach is motor simulation, used in complement to conventional physical rehabilitation methods. This paper provides recent scientific insights on the basis of motor simulation, discusses benefits of this approach in motor rehabilitation, and provides applied perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The motor system plays a role in some object mental rotation tasks, and researchers have reported that people may use a strategy of motor simulation to mentally rotate objects. In this study, we used images of a hand with a letter printed on the palm to directly determine whether a hand image can be automatically rotated during the deliberate mental rotation of an object and whether the hand and object are rotated in the same trajectory. A total of 41 participants were shown the stimuli and asked to decide whether the letters, which were upright or tilted at specific degrees, were normal or mirrored. The hand images in the background showed either a left or a right hand in the palm view, with fingers pointing upwards, medial, downwards, or lateral. Reaction times and error rates were measured to determine the speed and accuracy of mental rotation. A complex interaction between the hand posture and letter orientation revealed that the hand image was mentally rotated automatically, together with the deliberate mental rotation of the letter. The biomechanical constraints of the hand also influenced reaction times, suggesting the involvement of the motor system in the concomitant mental rotation of the hand image. Consistent with the motor simulation theory, the participants seemed to imagine the hand carrying the object in its movement. These behavioural data support the motor simulation theory and elucidate specific processes of mental rotation that have not been addressed by neuroimaging studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skilled athletes can predict the outcome of actions performed by others, based on the kinematic information inherent in others’ actions, earlier and more accurately than less-skilled athletes. Activation of the motor cortex during action observation indicates motor simulation of other’s actions in one’s own motor system; this contributes to skilled outcome prediction. Thus, the present study investigated whether concurrent movements during action observation that affect motor simulation influence the accuracy of outcome prediction, namely, whether concurrent imitative movement and self-movement enhance and inhibit accuracy, respectively, based on skill level. Twelve male varsity basketball players (skilled group) and twelve male college students with no special training in basketball (less-skilled group) were required to predict the outcome of a basketball free throw by another player based on the action kinematics in the following four conditions: prediction without any action (observation), prediction with right-wrist volar flexion with maximum speed (incongruent-action), prediction with concurrent imitative movement during observation by right-wrist flexion as if imitating the model’s action (imitative-motion), or prediction with concurrent self-movement by right-wrist flexion as if shooting by oneself (self-motion). The results showed that the skilled group had degraded accuracy of outcome prediction in the self-motion condition compared to the observation condition. In contrast, accuracy in the less-skilled group was facilitated in the imitative-motion condition compared to the observation condition. The findings suggest that, at least in less-skilled participants, the appropriate motor simulation that relates to skilled prediction can be virtually induced by concurrent imitative movement during the prediction task, even if they have less experience of free throws. This effect in imitative movement is likely to occur by producing identical motor commands with observed action, thereby enabling the prediction of sensory consequences and outcome accurately via a forward model. We propose that traditional perceptual training with concurrent imitative movement is likely to be an effective way to develop visual- and motor-based hybrid outcome predictions that produce superior inferences in skilled athletes.