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Background: Writing is an important and complex skill, which could be enhanced by teaching students effective writing strategies such as outlining. Electronic outlining - integrated feature in Microsoft® Word -- has been shown to enhance students' writing performance. However, little is known about the optimal didactic approach for electronic outlining. Objective: This study examined the effects of learning to use electronic outlining either via observational learning or via learning-by-doing on students' argumentative writing performance. Methods: Students (N = 129, 10th-grade) were assigned with their complete class to one of three conditions: a control (traditional pen and paper outlines via learning-by-doing), outline (electronic outlines via learning-by-doing) or observation (electronic outlines via observational learning) condition. Students followed an argumentative writing lesson-series that differed across conditions in terms of planning strategies and didactic approaches used. To examine the influence of the different conditions on students' writing, argumentative texts were used as pre- and post-tests, and the quality was evaluated with an analytic assessment protocol. In addition, data regarding students' perceived mental effort and the organisation of the writing process were collected. Finally, students' attitudes towards electronic outlining were assessed. Results and Conclusion: Although the overall text structure had improved after the lesson series, no significant differences were found between conditions. Electronic outlining increased the total amount of time dedicated to the texts as well as the revision ratio. Students in the observation condition showed a higher pause ratio and a lower fluency on the post-test as compared to students who learned by doing (both control and outline conditions). With regard to perceived mental effort, students in the outline and control conditions perceived significant decreases over tasks, as opposed to those in the observation condition. In conclusion, the self-reports indicate that students in the outline condition appropriated electronic outlining significantly better than those in the observation condition, suggesting that practice enhanced students' appropriation of electronic outlining.

High-quality elaborative peer feedback is a blessing for both learners and teachers. However, learners can experience difficulties in giving high-quality feedback on complex skills using textual analytic rubrics. High-quality elaborative feedback can be strengthened by adding video-modeling examples with embedded self-explanation prompts, turning textual analytic rubrics (TR) into so-called 'video-enhanced analytic rubrics' (VER). This study contrasts two experimental conditions (TR, n = 54; VERs, n = 49) with their version of the anonymized online tool (used to collect the given feedback in 'Tips for improvement and Tops identifying strengths'). Peer feedback quality (concreteness and consistency) was evaluated using Natural Language Processing. As expected, the video-enhanced rubrics condition resulted in a higher quantity of words used and a lower amount of naive wording compared to the textual rubric condition. Contrary to our assumptions, it did not lower the amount of non-constructive wording nor improved the amount of behavioral and process-related feedback. Possibly, the transition from providing more feedback to delivering more accurate behavioral and process-related feedback has not yet been made in the time set for the study.

In this study, we explored associations between perception of musical features (pitch, tonality, timing, timbre, and loudness), vocal abilities (singing accuracy, melodic achievement, and rhythmic performance), and cognitive levels (reading accuracy and comprehension, grammar, and math) among children ages 6 to 12. Musical perception abilities were measured using the Implicit Tonal Ability Test. Vocal abilities were measured using the Vocal Musical Ability Test. Cognitive levels were measured using standardized Dutch performance tests on academic skills. We investigated which factors (age, gender, cognitive levels, school type, music perception abilities, and participation in music education) predict vocal abilities and how these abilities differed by age. Results showed that singing accuracy was best predicted by gender, math level, and music perception abilities. Melodic achievement was best predicted by age, school type, math level, and music perception abilities. Rhythmic performance was best predicted by age, instrumental music education, and music perception abilities. Regardless of their age, differences in singing abilities between children were large. We advise teachers to provide activities in which repetition and prediction of patterns, scales, all intervals, and intonation are practiced, including transposing melodies and repeating rhythmic patterns.

Although various academic disciplines use data papers to support effective research practices, data papers are still uncommon in the educational sciences. Main goals of data papers are enhancing transparency regarding research processes and supporting data sharing among researchers and thus, open science. As many educational research projects include personal data often of minors, publishing raw data can be challenging due to privacy regulations and laws (GDPR). The present article aims at exploring how a data paper can contribute to open science and enhancing transparency regarding research and publication processes for educational research projects, often containing personal data that cannot be made openly available in its raw form. To this end, we describe a dataset of a research project on teachers' noticing as basis for their classroom management. As this project includes rich process-tracing recording methods, the dataset is diverse and serves as basis for multiple analyses and publications while containing personal data of teachers and minors. By elaborating on the characteristics of the dataset, its gathering, analysis approaches and sharing preprocessed and anonymized data files, this data paper explores how to contribute to transparency and open science in educational sciences while acting within the boundaries set by privacy regulations and laws.

An important goal of educational designers is to achieve long-term transfer of learning that is the learner's application of newly acquired competencies. Extensive research during more than a century shows that especially in formal educational settings this fundamental aspect of education often occurs poorly or not at all, leading to what is called a Transfer Problem. To address this transfer problem, the present study examines intentions to transfer learning to multiple contexts; this focus on multiple transfer contexts extends previous research focusing on a single transfer context, typically the workplace. The present study aimed to estimate the influence of five organizational variables (peer support, supervisor support, opportunity to use, openness to change, and feedback) on pre-training intention to transfer prospective learning in two different transfer contexts: study and work. Participants were 303 students at an open university starting a digital course in information literacy. The model was tested using structural equation modelling. The results indicated that before starting the course supervisor support and feedback were considered the strongest predictors of intention to transfer new learning in both the study and the work contexts. This research is amongst the first in the training literature to address multicontextuality and examines intentions to transfer generic competences to the two transfer contexts study and work within one single study.

The purpose of this study was to investigate to what extent student-perceived parental involvement predicted academic motivation in vocational education and training (VET) students. The sample comprised 2108 young adults participating in a VET institute. Thirty-three items were developed to measure student-perceived parental involvement in VET, as no appropriate questionnaire was available for this educational setting. This questionnaire was analysed with factor analyses which resulted in a new, short, and valid questionnaire with 10 items to measure parental involvement on five indicators. Consistent with prior research, parental involvement significantly predicted motivation in VET students. Three out of five parental involvement indicators were found related to motivation. Specifically, two indicators were positively related to motivation: (1) parent-child educational discussions, and (2) parental aspirations and expectations. The indicator 'reinforcement of learning at home' was negatively related to motivation. These findings provide additional evidence for the significance of parental involvement based upon its link with students' motivation in a VET context.

Recent technological developments related to the World Wide Web including mobile computing, social media, and online videos are shaping the way we learn. As argued in the present commentary, the majority of educational psychological research that has examined how individuals learn by searching the Web, however, has not kept up with this pace. Therefore, the goal of this commentary is to discuss how recent technological developments might affect how learners acquire knowledge through Web search and to provide a respective research agenda. Specifically, we will focus on the use of mobile devices and digital assistants, social networking sites, and online videos, and the opportunities and challenges they present to learners. In addition, we suggest that future research should study the ongoing learning processes during Web search in greater detail. We believe that examining the research questions raised in the present commentary will uniquely contribute to the literature on Web-based searching and learning.

Learners in the process of developing complex skills need a rich mental model of what such skills entail. Textual analytics rubrics (TR) are a widely used instrument to support formative assessment of complex skills, supporting feedback, reflection, and thus mental model development of complex skills. However, the textual nature of a rubric limits the possibility to deliver contextual and dynamic (time-and behaviour-oriented) information. In the Viewbrics online tool, we developed a version supporting the delivery of contextual and dynamic information by adding video-modelling examples with embedded self-explanation prompts to textual analytics rubrics. We called this combination as video-enhanced rubrics (VERs). Our current study investigates whether the Viewbrics online tool supports complex skills development and whether either textual- or video-enhanced rubrics best support complex skills' mastery. The study was a three-group (VERS n = 49, TR n = 54, control n = 50) within-subjects design. Learners' performance of complex skills was measured through expert, peer, and self-assessment using the Viewbrics online tool. A multilevel regression analysis shows learners in the TR and VERS conditions consistently outperforming the control condition to varying degrees across skills. However, no differences have been found between the two experimental conditions. Positive results across different complex skills indicate the Viewbrics online tool can be used to support the development of a wide range of complex skills in secondary education.

Domain experts regularly teach novice students how to perform a task. This often requires them to adjust their behavior to the less knowledgeable audience and, hence, to behave in a more didactic manner. Eye movement modeling examples (EMMEs) are a contemporary educational tool for displaying experts' (natural or didactic) problem-solving behavior as well as their eye movements to learners. While research on expert-novice communication mainly focused on experts' changes in explicit, verbal communication behavior, it is as yet unclear whether and how exactly experts adjust their nonverbal behavior. This study first investigated whether and how experts change their eye movements and mouse clicks (that are displayed in EMMEs) when they perform a task naturally versus teach a task didactically. Programming experts and novices initially debugged short computer codes in a natural manner. We first characterized experts' natural problem-solving behavior by contrasting it with that of novices. Then, we explored the changes in experts' behavior when being subsequently instructed to model their task solution didactically. Experts became more similar to novices on measures associated with experts' automatized processes (i.e., shorter fixation durations, fewer transitions between code and output per click on the run button when behaving didactically). This adaptation might make it easier for novices to follow or imitate the expert behavior. In contrast, experts became less similar to novices for measures associated with more strategic behavior (i.e., code reading linearity, clicks on run button) when behaving didactically.

The aim of the present empirical study was to explore students' self-regulated learning behaviours in vocational education and training and to describe the micro processes associated with planning, monitoring and evaluating during practical learning tasks. The 18 participants were well-performing students from upper secondary vocational education. We collected data from observations, interviews and self-reports to gain detailed insights into students' behaviours and thoughts during practical task performance. The results reveal that most of the students planned their time and resources, but did not develop elaborate plans to regulate their learning behaviours. They monitored their work carefully and adjusted when necessary. When evaluating, students focussed more on work outcomes than learning processes. The results also showed that the students' actual behaviours corresponded with self-reports on internal regulation, with three students overestimating their internal regulation. This study sheds light on an underexplored context and population regarding self-regulated learning. Though the well-performing vocational students engaged in self-regulation, their self-regulating behaviours were led by a combination of hands-on activities and evolving work outcomes. Thus, it was the emerging performance and experiences that triggered their learning. Although self-regulated learning behaviours in vocational education and training were present, we conclude that instructional support needs to be developed and empirically tested to actively facilitate and foster vocational students' learning by doing and reflection.

For learners, it can be difficult to imagine how to perform a complex skill based on textual information from solely a text-based analytic rubric. Rubrics lack (1) the contextual information needed to convey real-world attributes (2) the dynamic information (such as gesturing in the complex skill of presenting) (3) the procedural information required to support the automation of constituent skills. We propose to address the text-based rubric's deficiencies by adding video-modeling examples, self-explanation prompts, an intertwined educational- and instructional narrative, natural segmentation, and a non-verbal script. With the resulting Video Enhanced Rubric, we aim to improve the formative assessment of complex skills by fostering learner's mental model development, feedback quality, and complex skill mastery. Designing multimedia to support the formative assessment of complex skills using can cause dilemmas for instructional designers. For example, is learner control needed to foster intrinsic motivation or is it deemed to create extraneous cognitive load? Is it wise to use a video modeling example of peer-aged learners when the model does not display perfect performance? We found seven dilemmas around proven complex skill development, motivational design, and multimedia design guidelines. This paper presents a theoretical contribution to instructional design by introducing a framework to address dilemmas regarding such design dilemmas. As a practical contribution, we support educational researchers and practitioners by presenting six practical guidelines for designing a Video Enhanced Rubric. A use case of the Viewbrics-project provides insight into the practical application of the framework within the context of Dutch pre-university education.

In vocational education, workplace simulations (WPS) have been implemented to ensure a better connection between the educational setting and the labour market. Moreover, WPS are supposed to motivate students and promote self-directed learning. So far, however, not much is known about the way students experience these WPS. The aim of the present exploratory case study was to investigate students' perceptions and preparedness for WPS and explore what factors they perceive to be relevant for their learning in these simulations. Forty students from three different pre-vocational secondary schools participated. Semi-structured group interviews were conducted and thematic analysis was used to examine the qualitative data. The results revealed that authentic WPS can increase student motivation and engagement. Learner characteristics regarded as relevant in WPS were motivation, responsibility, independence and discipline. For students, the presence and guidance of the teacher played an essential role in their working and learning effectively. They felt limited in making choices to direct their own learning. Assessment criteria were not transparent enough for students. Concluding, we found that students perceived factors closely related to self-regulated and self-directed learning to be relevant for their learning; however, these learning activities and processes have not yet been sufficiently promoted and supported in the investigated vocational schools. The study highlights design dilemmas for vocational practice and offers indications in how to match both learning environmental characteristics and teacher support tailored to learners' needs.

In complex cognitive domains such as air traffic control, professionals must be able to adapt to and act upon continuing changes in a highly advanced technological work environment. To function optimally in such an environment, the controllers must be able to regulate their learning. Although these regulation skills should be part of their training, this is not usually the case. This study evaluates a training program that integrates air traffic control skills with regulation skills. The participants were 29 air traffic control students who followed either the original training program (n = 12) or a new program (n = 17) in which the development of regulation skills was embedded in the training of domain specific skills. Compared to students in the original program, the students in the new program showed increased self-efficacy in the use of self-regulated learning skills with improved performance in domain specific competences. The implications of these findings are discussed with regard to the daily training practice of complex cognitive skills.

In a large-scale top-down innovation operation in the Netherlands, workplace simulations have been implemented in vocational schools, where students are required to work independently and self-direct their learning. However, research has shown that the success of such large-scale top-down innovations depends on how well their execution in schools matches the theoretical plans and goals. Given that teachers play a crucial role in translating innovative concepts to educational practice, their perceptions of teaching in these environments may provide useful information about how to best match the goals of workplace simulation to its execution. In this interview study, we therefore focussed on teachers' views of designing instructional material and providing pedagogical guidance in workplace simulations. Twenty teachers belonging to six teams participated. The results reveal that teachers face difficulties on both aspects and it became clear that the top-down innovations influenced their daily practice. Old routines and spontaneous and immediate reactions determined much of the teachers' approaches to implementation, and it appeared that they were not yet sufficiently prepared to help students develop metacognitive skills. Furthermore, self-regulation and self-direction among students are not sufficiently promoted and supported in workplace simulations. Teachers often experienced a deep conflict between maintaining control and letting go. Our results point out that teachers need to be supported and guided during the implementation process of any top-down innovation, so that they learn how to adjust their teaching to the new requirements of workplace simulations. It seems important to ensure that teachers are also well skilled for reflecting on their own practices.

This study focuses on learning in three different hypermedia environments that either support autonomous learning, learner-controlled learning or system-controlled learning and explores the mediating role of academic self-regulation style (ASRS; i.e. a macro level of motivation) on learning. This research was performed to gain more insight in the conditions under which learning in hypermedia environments is effective. Sixty-nine grade five students from a primary school answered short essay questions using video material from a hypermedia environment. The effects on task motivation and test performance were measured. It was found that learners in the autonomy supported hypermedia environment reported lower levels of controlled task motivation, compared to the learners in the system-controlled and learner-controlled hypermedia environments. But there were no effects of hypermedia environment on autonomous task motivation or the reported need fulfilment for autonomy. Furthermore, learners in the learner-controlled hypermedia environment scored lower on a delayed, In-Depth Knowledge Test compared to learners in the other two environments. Moreover, learners in the autonomy supported hypermedia environment watched more (unique) videos compared to learners in the system-controlled and the learner-controlled hypermedia environments. As for the role of learners' ASRS, we found no interaction with the type of hypermedia environment on task motivation or performance. Learners' ASRS did, however, affect the learners' motivation for the task. And, when presented with advice (as in the autonomy supported hypermedia environment) learners with an autonomous self-regulation style followed more advice, compared to learners with a more controlled self-regulation style.

Teachers and students have their own perceptions of education. Congruent perceptions contribute to optimal teaching-learning processes and help achieving best learning outcomes. This study investigated patterns in differences between students' and teachers' perceptions of their learning environment. Student profiles were identified taking into account the degree of congruence/friction with teachers' perceptions. Teacher profiles were identified based on their differences in perceptions to students. Profiles were validated with regard to learning-related student characteristics and approaches to teaching. Tenth graders (N = 994) of four secondary schools filled out the Inventory of Perceived Study Environment-Extended (IPSEE) and the Inventory of Learning Styles. Their teachers (N = 136) filled out the teacher version of the IPSEE and the Approaches to Teaching Inventory. Latent class analyses were conducted to define profiles with respect to the magnitude of differences in perceptions. Results showed three student profiles: Closest match profile (30%), intermediate profile (59%), and distal profile (11%). While closest match students had desirable learning-related characteristics, others did not and are at risk for destructive friction. Two teacher profiles described idealistic teachers (70%) and adaptive teachers (30%), which related to approaches to teaching. Subgroups of students and teachers provide a comprehensive picture of those who are at risk because of too large differences in perceptions. This study stresses that differences in perceptions deserve detailed attention for optimising learning environments. Involving both students and teachers in the instructional design process could be a way to better account for perceptions of both stakeholders.

A program for teaching 9th graders course content (history) and how they should evaluate information found on the WWW was designed and tested. Goal of the program was to teach content, evaluations skills, and to achieve transfer of these skills to a different domain. In the design of the program the principles of two transfer theories were combined using a design-based research approach. Results revealed that the program improved students' evaluation behaviour. Compared to the students of the control condition, the evaluation skills of students in the experimental condition improved to a higher level, but did not lead to transfer. Students in the experimental classes scored higher on the final content exam than students in the control class.

In the field of aviation, air traffic controllers must be able to adapt to and act upon continuing changes in a highly advanced technological work environment. This position paper claims that explicit training of self-directed learning skills (i.e. the ability to: formulate own learning needs, set own learning goals, and identify learning tasks that help to achieve personal learning goals) is important for future professionals in aviation. In this paper, we present an adaptive training system in which the system and trainee share control over learning task selection and which can help trainees to develop their self-directed learning skills.

Background: Students' perspective on education is of crucial importance for its effectivity, but students' opinions are seldom acknowledged by teachers and designers. Student participation in the educational design process could be a suitable tool to better take students' preferences into account. However, for effective participatory design, it is necessary to know whether students have stable preferences for the design of their education. Changeability of preferences would require a more continuing design process allowing continuous adaptations. Aims: This longitudinal survey study aimed to determine the changeability over time of students' preferences for different aspects of a learning environment. Additionally, causes of possible changes in preferences are investigated. Sample: The participants were 1,335 high school students of five schools for secondary education in the Netherlands, joining this study during a period of 2 years. Method: Data about students' preferences were collected at three moments, using the Inventory of Perceived Study Environment Extended. Learning-related student characteristics, such as processing strategies and motivational orientations, were measured with the Inventory of Learning Styles. Additionally, data on learning performances were collected. Results: The results showed stability on preferences for almost all studied characteristics of the learning environment. Particularly remarkable was a drop in desirability for student autonomy. This was larger for students with a certificate-oriented motivation and smaller for self-regulated students. Additionally, poorly performing students had a larger decrease in preference for autonomy. Conclusions: The stability on most aspects supports that participatory design might result in fairly stable instructional designs, although caution is needed with respect to student autonomy. (Contains 3 figures and 5 tables.)

A large body of research has shown that for novice learners, instruction that relies more heavily on worked examples than on problem solving, is more effective for learning as shown by higher test performance. Moreover, this beneficial effect is often obtained with less acquisition time and lower cognitive load during acquisition and test phase. However, most of this research has been conducted in laboratory settings with college or university students and a control condition consisting of problem solving without any additional support. The present study, using a quasi-experimental design, investigated the effects of implementing worked examples in an existing primary school mathematics curriculum in which a realistic mathematics teaching method is used, during a 3-week period. The results showed no significant differences in test performance or cognitive load; however, the worked examples group attained this level of performance with significantly less acquisition time. (Contains 2 tables.)

Students' perceptions of instruction are important because they direct the learning of students. The fact that teachers have only limited knowledge of these perceptions is likely to threaten the effectiveness of learning, because congruence between interpretations of an instructional intervention is necessary for its optimal use. This study examines participatory design as a strategy for taking student perceptions into account in instructional re/design. Participatory design meetings of groups of teachers and seven co-designing students in a secondary education setting identified changes to improve the regular education process. The results on changes in student perceptions, perceived-desired discrepancy, and teacher-student disagreement showed some improvement for the co-designers but, unexpectedly, limited or even negative effects for the non-co-designing students. Possible causes are discussed. Participatory design seems to have potential for improving education, but further research is needed. (Contains 7 tables.)

The focus of this special section is on the processes involved when solving information-based problems. Solving these problems requires from people that they are able to define the information problem, search and select usable and reliable sources and information and synthesise information into a coherent body of knowledge. An important aspect throughout the whole search process is the critical evaluation of sources and information. Evaluation processes are of particular importance when searching information on the Internet, because of the masses of information, and the open publication principle of the Internet. The articles in the present special section take different perspectives in studying the evaluation processes. Influencing factors such as students' domain-specific prior knowledge, metatextual knowledge, and students' epistemic beliefs are addressed.

Background: The match between students' perceptions of a learning environment and their preferences about its design influences students' learning behaviour and by consequence the effectiveness of education. Therefore, the students' perspective deserves a more prominent place in the educational design process. Having an adequate picture of the match between students' perceptions and preferences is needed for teachers/educational designers to account for students' perspectives while designing education. As perception-preference match is likely to differ between students, establishing correlates to it would provide valuable information. Students' perceptions are known to relate to several student characteristics; this study extends our understanding to its relations with perception-preference match. Purpose: This study aims to investigate the degree to which students' perceptions of lessons match with their preferences about different characteristics of modern education. Additionally, it is aimed to determine the most prominent relationships between perception-preference match and learning-related student characteristics. Sample: The sample consisted of 1146 10th-grade high school students (mean age = 16 years) from five secondary schools in the Netherlands. As data collection took place during normal school hours, the response rate was 100%, comprising all students that were at school on the day of data collection. Design and methods: To measure students' perceptions of the lessons and their preferences about its instructional design, students completed the Inventory of Perceived Study Environment Extended, being composed of eight scales about central characteristics of modern education. The Inventory of Learning Styles was administered to measure learning-related student characteristics: cognitive processing strategies, regulation strategies, motivational orientations, conceptions about learning and affective processing strategies. To answer the research questions, paired "t"-tests and multiple regression analyses were conducted. Results: Findings showed low perception-preference matches on fascinating contents, clarity of goals and student autonomy. Students preferred these characteristics being more represented in their lessons than they actually perceived them. Perception-preference match was predominantly related to students' motivation and affective state: a personally interested motivational orientation related to better perception-preference match, whereas motivation/concentration problems related to worse matches. These relations did not give indications about causality, but based on the literature a bidirectional relation is supposed. Conclusion: This study shows that students' perception-preference match gives clear indications for which aspects of lessons could be improved. As students consider almost all characteristics of modern education as desirable, meeting students' preferences could contribute to more effective education. Additionally, the perception-preference match relates to students' motivation and affective strategies. Improving education by accounting for the match between students' perceptions and preferences of education is likely to improve motivation as well as having a significant effect on the quality of education. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Workplace simulations (WPS), authentic learning environments at school, are increasingly used in vocational education. This article provides a theoretical analysis and synthesis of requirements considering learner skills, characteristics of the learning environment and the role of the teacher that influence good functioning in WPS and foster students' learning. WPS appeal to students' self-directed learning (SDL) and self-regulated learning (SRL) skills, as students are required to work and learn independently in these settings. To achieve individual learning, the environments should be adaptive to the learners' needs. Furthermore, the teachers should support learners to become competent in the domain but also guide them to become self-directed learners. To do so the interaction between the student, the teacher and the environment is of importance. The proposed model depicts the different elements and their relations. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

Background: Teachers have limited insight in students' perspectives on education, although these perspectives influence quality of learning. As students' and teachers' perspectives differ considerably, there is a need for teachers to learn more about students' experiences and ideas about education. Participatory design might be a good strategy for taking student perspectives into account in instructional design. In areas outside education, the positive effects of participation have already been demonstrated. Purpose: The main goals of this exploratory study are to develop an approach--based on the principles of participatory design--for student participation in instructional design, and to evaluate how students and teachers experience the discussion about possible changes in the design and how they co-operate in designing lessons. Additionally, the study investigates whether the used approach is workable and suitable for use with a range of courses. Sample: The sample consisted of six teachers (of mathematics, economics and English) from two secondary schools in the Netherlands and their 10th-grade pre-university students (N = 139; average age 16 years). In each class, a small group of seven co-designing students was selected as a representative sample of their class. All other students in these classes (i.e. those not directly involved in participatory re-design) were also included, as evaluators of the proposed changes. Design and methods: A participatory design meeting was organised for each group separately. In all groups, the same approach for participatory design was used. The quality of the meeting and the agreement with the proposed changes were evaluated using open questions. The questions were answered individually by both teachers and co-designing students. The remaining students answered questions about their agreement with the proposed changes. The written answers were analysed using a coding scheme. Results: Findings suggest that both teachers and co-designing students were largely satisfied with the meeting. The atmosphere was experienced predominantly as comfortable and enough opportunities were provided to express thoughts and ideas. Teachers, additionally, stated that the usability of students' suggestions was good. The remaining students predominantly agreed on the proposed changes discussed. No differences were found between the evaluation scores of students of different courses. Conclusions: The main conclusion from this exploratory study is that participatory design appears suitable for use in education. The approach used for initiating and structuring the discussion between the teacher and his/her students was appropriate for designing lessons, according to all those involved. As this study suggests, the barriers to the inclusion of students in the instructional design process are not insurmountable, and there are compelling reasons for implementing participatory design in education. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)