Search

A central question in the study of predator–prey relationships is to what extent prey behaviour is determined by avoidance of predators. Here, we test whether the long-term risk of encountering lions and the presence of lions in the vicinity influence the behaviour of large African herbivores at waterholes through avoidance of high-risk areas, increases in group size, changes in temporal niche or changes in the time spent in waterhole areas. In Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, we monitored waterholes to study the behaviour of nine herbivore species under different risks of encountering lions. We radio-collared 26 lions in the study area which provided the opportunity to monitor whether lions were present during observation sessions and to map longer-term seasonal landscapes of risk of encountering lions. Our results show that the preferred prey species for lions (buffalo, kudu and giraffe) avoided risky waterholes. Group size increased as encounter risk increased for only two species (wildebeest and zebra), but this effect was not strong. Interestingly, buffalo avoided the hours of the day which are dangerous when the long-term and short-term risks of encountering lions were high, and all species showed avoidance of waterhole use at night times when lions were in the vicinity. This illustrates well how prey can make temporal adjustments to avoid dangerous periods coinciding with predator hunting. Additionally, many herbivores spent more time accessing water to drink when the long- and short-term risks of encountering lions were high, and they showed longer potential drinking time when the long-term risk of encountering lions was high, suggesting higher levels of vigilance. This study illustrates the diversity of behavioural adjustments to the risk of encountering a predator and how prey respond differently to temporal variations in this risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human–carnivore conflict (HCC) represents one of the greatest threats to rural livelihoods and the persistence of large carnivores. The application of aversive conditioning, the association of unpleasant stimuli with the occurrence of unwanted behaviors, to mitigate HCC has achieved mixed results within and across species, making a better understanding of the factors driving intervention success critical to inform management practices. We explored the degree to which the chasing of African lions (Panthera leo) out of no tolerance zones conditions lion behavior to reduce their rate of return into community lands or rate of repeated livestock killing, providing evidence‐based understanding of program outcomes. We used data from 15 global positioning system (GPS)‐collared lions adjacent to Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, with each lion receiving 0–17 conditioning treatments, and analyzed the data using recurrent event survival analysis and logistic regression. Chases were most successful (i.e., lion pushed out of the no tolerance zone by sunrise of the following day) in the dry season (i.e., when wild prey were more predictable), in areas closer to the park, and for individuals from smaller and more stable prides (i.e., had not lost a pride male within six months). Adult females and subadult males were more likely than adult males to reenter community lands, and subadult males were most likely to repeatedly depredate livestock. While livestock depredation has decreased since program initiation, the individuals in this study were overall not less likely to enter community lands or depredate livestock in response to chases when chases were considered isolated events. Rather, it was the consistency of deterrence events that proved most important in reducing livestock depredations, likely because of a stronger reinforcement between the undesired behavior and the negative stimulus. However, lions that had previously habitually killed livestock had greater depredation rates even after several conditioning treatments. Aversive conditioning holds promise in the management of carnivores that depredate livestock, but intervention must be consistent, ideally early in the development of problem behaviors, to maximize intervention effectiveness. Methods that separate wildlife from people (i.e., fencing, livestock enclosure fortification), in combination with aversive conditioning, may be needed to provide a sustainable, long‐term solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explored the perceptions held by subsistence farmers (living in communal lands within the CAMPFIRE programme area in northwestern Zimbabwe) towards the African lion ( Panthera leo) and related conservation interventions undertaken by management authorities. Conceptually guided by the cognitive hierarchy, we used a semi-structured, face-to-face interview format to collect data across three different farming communities bordering Hwange and Zambezi National Parks. Ordinal regression models were used to analyse the data. Our results illustrate that farmers' perceptions towards lions were strongly negative and appeared to be associated with the geographic location in which the farmer lived, as well as the farmer's ethnic group. We also found that perceptions towards lions were not associated with specific livestock losses or to the potential benefits farmers received from wildlife conservation, e.g. school classroom blocks or road improvements. Instead, we suggest that fear of lions and perceived risk to livestock or human wellbeing may play a stronger role in shaping farmers' perceptions compared to actual livestock losses. Moreover, we suggest that sharing information across farmer social networks within a community area, along with the potential for media attention over sensational events, may also influence perceptions towards lions. Our results contribute a baseline dataset for future applied research in this area, and provide insight into developing locally-meaningful conservation interventions, including the type of information to be shared, channels for communication, and the benefits derived from participating in wildlife conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) have the potential to provide havens for large carnivores while preserving connectivity across wider mixed-use landscapes. However, information on the status of species in such landscapes is lacking, despite being a prerequisite for effective conservation planning. We contribute information to this gap for leopard (Panthera pardus) in Africa, where the species is facing severe range contractions, using data from transect surveys of a 30,000km2 area across Botswana and Zimbabwe in the Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) TFCA. We used occupancy models to assess how biotic, anthropogenic, and management variables influence leopard habitat use, and N-mixture models to identify variables influencing the species' relative abundance. Leopard were detected in 184 out of 413 sampling units of 64km2; accounting for imperfect detection resulted in mean detection probability p ̂ ¯ = 0.24 (SD = 0.06) and mean probability of site use ψ ̂ ¯ = 0.89 (SD = 0.20). Habitat use was positively influenced by prey availability and high protection. Relative abundance was best predicted by trophy hunting, which had a negative influence, while abundance was positively associated with high protection and availability of steenbok. Our findings suggest that securing prey populations should be a priority in conservation planning for leopard in Africa, and underline the necessity of preserving highly-protected areas within mixed-use landscapes as strongholds for large carnivores. Our findings also support calls for better assessment of leopard population density in trophy hunting areas, and illustrate the value of N-mixture models to identify factors influencing relative abundance of large carnivores. Unlabelled Image • Leopards are widely distributed in Africa's largest transfrontier conservation area. • N-mixture models shed light on factors driving relative abundance. • Trophy hunting has a top-down impact on leopard relative abundance. • Leopard conservation plans should strive to secure prey populations. • Adaptive trophy hunting quotas should be implemented to ensure sustainable offtake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large carnivores inhabiting ecosystems with heterogeneously distributed environmental resources with strong seasonal variations frequently employ opportunistic foraging strategies, often typified by seasonal switches in diet. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. Here, we investigate the seasonal contribution of the different herbivore species, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. feeding locations) of African lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes. We used data from 245 kills and 74 faecal samples. Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. Jacobs' index also revealed that buffalo was the most intensively selected species throughout the year. For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group "medium Bovidae" are the most important secondary prey. This study revealed seasonal patterns in secondary prey consumption by female lions partly based on prey ecology with browsers, such as giraffe and kudu, mainly consumed in the early dry season, and grazers, such as zebra and suids, contributing more to female diet in the late dry season. Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. Jacobs' index finally revealed a very strong preference for kills within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species, except small antelopes, in all seasons. This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour.

We test two hypotheses that could account for patch departure by large mammalian carnivores. One hypothesis is the unsuccessful-hunt hypothesis, where carnivores leave an area after an unsuccessful hunt but continue hunting in the same area after a successful hunt. The second hypothesis is the patch-disturbance hypothesis, where carnivores depart the area after a successful hunt because of behavioral responses of prey to predator presence. We used global positioning system collars to monitor the movements of African lions (Panthera leo) and identified their kill sites to distinguish between these two hypotheses. Lions moved to a different area (≥ 5 km away) after 87% of the kills, which supports the patch-disturbance hypothesis for patch-departure behavior of large mammalian carnivores.