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The nitrogen isotope compositions of charred wheat and barley grains reflect manuring intensity and have been used to reconstruct past manuring practices at archaeological sites across Europe and western Asia. To assess whether this analytical method can be applied to a staple crop in the West African Sahel, the nitrogen isotope values of Pennisetum glaucum grains in this region were determined and the effect of charring ascertained. Pennisetum glaucum ears were collected from fields in northeast Senegal, where the fertilisation histories of the plots (manure and/or household waste) were known. The nitrogen isotope values of these millet grains provide an insight into the values to expect for P. glaucum grains grown with low to moderate addition of manure/household waste in a semi-arid climate. Charring of P. glaucum grains by heating at 215–260 °C for 4–24 h increases their nitrogen isotope values by a maximum of 0.34‰. In light of these modern data, the nitrogen isotope values of millet grains recovered from the archaeological settlement mound of Tongo Maaré Diabal, Mali, can be interpreted as evidence for modest levels of manure/household waste input throughout the occupation of the site from cal ad 500–1150. This study demonstrates the potential for nitrogen isotope values of P. glaucum grains to shed light on past farming practices in West Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The penetration of Sahelian West Africa by Europeans in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries revealed landscapes dotted with fortified settlements of every size and shape; none more so than that of Segou, the pre-eminent Mande polity of the era. This is not surprising given the insecurity which reigned at that time, with interminable warfare or raiding linked to the capture of slaves, whether for the state itself, or for the brokers of the Trans-Atlantic and Trans-Saharan trades (Richards 1987; MacDonald and Camara 2011). Since 2005, I have worked on the archaeology and place-specific oral traditions of Segou with Seydou Camara (MacDonald and Camara 2011, 2012). In the present text, and with an eye to Graham Connah's (2000) own interest in African city walls, I seek to exploit both three seasons of field research and French colonial sources to examine the technology, function and social role of these walls in Segovian settlements. Finally, I consider the history of fortified settlements along the Middle Niger and whether or not the ubiquitous walls of Segou are something new, or something connected with earlier traditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]