Search

We report midline impacts of a community-randomized cash transfer intervention to 1857 vulnerable mothers in 140 rural cocoa-farming communities of Côte d'Ivoire. Compared to mothers in the comparison group who participated in village savings and loan associations (VSLAs), treatment mothers participated in VSLAs and received 8 € each week for up to one year with no conditions attached (the midway point of a two-year program). We find small- to moderate-sized treatment effects on four of six indicators of economic well-being (d = 0.23–0.75), as well as small reductions in maternal stress (d = −0.27). We find no statistically detectable impacts on educational engagement, educational aspirations, or educational expectations for children. Results suggest that cash transfer programs in rural West African communities can improve economic well-being and reduce maternal stress. Implications for children and families and for future cash transfer evaluations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cacao swollen shoot disease (CSSD) caused by complexes of cacao swollen shoot badnaviruses (family Caulimoviridae, genus Badnavirus) remains highly prevalent and devastating in West Africa. The disease continues to impact substantially on cacao yield loss, cacao tree mortality, and decline in foreign exchange income from cacao bean sales. Currently, the disease is estimated to have a prevalence rate of over 30% in Ghana, as assessed in the ongoing third country-wide surveillance program. Although achievements from past research interventions have greatly elucidated the etiology, biology, epidemiology, diagnostics, and management of the disease, there are some outstanding knowledge gaps. The role of these information gaps and their effect on CSSD epidemiology and prevalence remain unanswered. This paper summarizes existing scientific knowledge from past research achievements that have provided elucidation on CSSD epidemiology, management options, and guided future research. The discussion highlights the need for multidisciplinary research with modern tools and institutional collaborators to holistically bring clarity on knowledge gaps on pathogen biology, virus–host-–vector interactions, role of environmental and soil nutrient effects on CSSD severity, evolution pattern, role of alternative hosts on virus species diversity, vector population dynamics, and their overall impact on CSSD prevalence and integrated management in cacao plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa fields in West Africa traditionally kept other tree species to provide shade for cocoa trees and obtain food and other products. Measuring other trees is paramount to monitoring environmental conditions in cocoa agroforests, but it has been difficult to apply at a large scale. This study presents the results of a rapid assessment method applied in Ghana, developed to measure non-cocoa tree characteristics based on easily observed parameters using sample surveys and mapping tools. We collected data from over 8700 cocoa farms and evaluated their biodiversity performance based on 6 indicators classified according to recommended thresholds to benefit biodiversity conditions. Our results show that species richness, shade cover, and potential for tree succession have the lowest proportions of fields with the recommended levels, with variations among regions and districts. The methodological procedure allowed us to identify priority areas and indicators falling behind desirable thresholds, which can inform training and management approaches regarding biodiversity-friendly practices in cocoa fields tailored to the needs of the farmers. The analysis procedure was developed with open-access automated routines, allowing for easy updates and replication to other areas, as well as for other commodities, enabling comparisons at different spatial scales and contributing to monitoring biodiversity over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa mirid, Sahlbergella singulars, is the major pest of cocoa (Theobroma cacao) responsible of several damage in plots in West Africa and particularly in Cameroon. Occasional damage accounts for 30 40% of pod losses. However, when miridae affect the foliage, gradual wilting occurs and eventually, tree death. A few studies have focused on describing the time evolution of Miridae in the plot in Cameroon, yet numerous questions remain. The aim of this paper is to estimate and control the losses of production caused by the bites of miridea. To do this, we will formulate and study a mathematical model for the dynamics of pods that takes into account the feeding and egg-laying of adults miridae on pods. We present the theoretical analysis of the model. More precisely, we compute equilibria and derive a threshold parameter that determines the presence or not of miridae in the plot. Throughout numerical simulations, we found that miridae can cause approximately 39.21% of production losses (which represents approximatively USD 1276.8 revenue losses) when initially, one has 1200 plants in the plot. After, we aim to increase cocoa production through optimal control. Optimal control consists in reducing density the number of nymphs and adults miridae in the plot. We studied the controlled model and we found that losses with control shrink to 20.58% which corresponds to USD670.32 income revenue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion of cocoa farming has been linked to deforestation and biodiversity loss in West Africa. Agroforestry systems could potentially increase the sustainability of cocoa production. However, despite the long history of cocoa cultivation in agroforestry systems, the exact mechanism or the combination of factors that drive cocoa growth and yield in these agroecosystems, especially at the cocoa establishment stage, is unclear. The present study aims to analyse how resource availability, stand characteristics and cocoa tree morphology interact to determine the performance of cocoa during the establishment phase among different cocoa cultivation systems. We studied seven different agroforestry systems and one monoculture system in 53 plots located in a 12-ha cocoa agroforestry trial recently established in Côte d'Ivoire. We characterized each system with 16 variables that described five system components: 1) cocoa yield (number of pods, pods weight, number of productive trees) and cocoa growth (basal diameter), 2) cocoa tree morphology (crown depth, diameter, area, and volume), 3) stand characteristics (number and size of shade trees), 4) light (leaf area index) and 5) water (soil volumetric water content). We used a Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) approach to understand and quantify interactions between the five components. The models were able to largely explain cocoa early yield and juvenile growth variability (respective determination coefficients: 0.45 and 0.92). We observed improved cocoa establishment in certain designs of agroforestry systems compared with monoculture. However, SEM revealed that stand characteristics (i.e. increase in the number and height of shade trees) had a negative effect on cocoa yield and growth via changes in cocoa tree morphology, having path coefficients of −0.48 and − 0.72, respectively. Conversely, we found a positive relationship between the cocoa tree morphology and cocoa early yield, for which the path coefficient was 0.74, the strongest relation. Cocoa tree morphology was more important than stand characteristics, leaf area index, and soil volumetric water content in controlling cocoa yield and growth. Taken together, our results suggest a competition for space between shade trees and cocoa plants. Finding the optimal design of agroforestry systems can help enhance cocoa establishment in the first years, improving the long-term performance of the system. This finding suggests that the competition effect depends on spatial planting pattern and species composition, offering an opportunity to meet the goals of a sustainable intensification of cocoa plantations through the design and management of optimal agroforestry systems. [Display omitted] • Cocoa yield and growth in the establishment phase are the result of interactions between the stand characteristics and cocoa crown development. • The competition for space in dense systems make the benefits of shade trees relatively unimportant. • Adequate agroforests design and management can enhance cocoa early yield and growth via an enhancement of crown development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa is an important crop for Ghana's economy, contributing 25% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The crop, however, is mainly cultivated on forest‐derived soils and is a major cause of land‐use change. Termites are an important biological component of tropical ecosystems providing numerous ecosystem services. Previous studies have indicated that termites are sensitive to forest disturbance and decrease in richness and abundance across land‐use intensification gradients, with consequences for the essential services that they provide. Native shade trees are often used to improve cocoa cultivation and may reduce the detrimental effects of land‐use change on some aspects of biodiversity. The aim of this study was therefore to explore how termites respond to land‐use change along a shade‐tree gradient in Kakum National Park and surrounding cocoa farms in Ghana (from forest at 80% tree cover to cocoa with no shade cover, to the extreme of cultivated arable crop land). It was predicted that termite richness and abundance would decrease with decreasing shade cover, and with increasing distance from the forest edge. Thirty‐four species from 29 genera were sampled, with Ancistrotermes crucifer being found in all the locations (47% of all encounters). Species richness and abundance differed marginally across the land‐use gradient, as well as the distance from the forest edge; however, species richness did not show any significance with distance. All the same, termite communities were robust to the disturbance. Our findings suggest that though site influenced species richness and abundance, cocoa trees can play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and environmental quality in an agricultural landscape by providing a habitat for forest species that are not found in pastures or farm fields. However, we caution that the relatively low forest baseline of existing forest diversity may inflate the value of cocoa land, with those forests no longer representing undisturbed natural habitats: this highlights that shifting baselines may need to be accounted for when interpreting findings in the Anthropocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ivorian classified forests have been highly anthropized by cocoa farming. In an attempt to provide guidance to the government on approaches to the restoration of the forest while respecting the aspirations of local populations, permanent plots were set up in the classified forest of Haut-Sassandra, and were monitored and measured for 3 years. This study was intended to analyze the evolution of the vegetation of permanent plots in the classified forest of Haut-Sassandra from 2018 to 2021. The results show that the vegetation evolves with the cessation of some agricultural activities. These plantations are colonized by pioneer species during the first three years of the abandonment of agricultural activities. Mortality rates increased by 477.59% and recruitment rates were reduced by 61.87% in regularly maintained plantations compared to their condition three years ago. However, the plantations with no agricultural activities and those which were not maintained but harvested had the highest recruitment rates of pioneer and heliophilous individuals. In sum, tree species could recolonize the classified forest of Haut-Sassandra if clearing is prohibited in cocoa farms. However, the populations could continue to harvest the pods from the cocoa trees which are already established in the classified forest of Haut-Sassandra. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa production is a leading driver of deforestation in the humid-tropics of West Africa. Reconciling climate change mitigation with livelihoods of farmers requires identification of production strategies to concurrently improve yield and profit while curtailing emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). Using a 2021 plot-survey conducted in Ghana's Eastern region, we evaluated yields, GHG emissions, and value of production (VOP) (a profit indicator) across a typology representing the diversity of systems at plot-level. The typology was constructed by first stratifying plots according to shade levels and variety (hybrid vs. Amazonia) which resulted in three systems: Hybrid sun , hybrid variety under full-sun (little to no shade); Hybrid shade , hybrid and moderate shade (13–25 shade trees ha−1); and Amazonia, Amazonia under predominantly moderate shade. Next, factor analysis and clustering were used to group plots within each system according to cocoa yield, vegetation, management, and (local) climate conditions. Cluster analysis showed that fertiliser, weeding, pruning, hand pollination, cocoa tree density, and shade tree densities of differing heights were most influential for determination across systems. Hybrid shade had the highest net GHG removal rate at −6.8 ± 1.7 (± 95% CI) Mg CO 2 eq ha−1 yr−1: 48% and 127% higher (emissions more negative) respectively over Amazonia and Hybrid sun. Hybrid shade additionally had the highest average and least variable VOP among production systems at 669 ± 564 USD ha−1 yr−1, compared to Hybrid sun and Amazonia at 404 ± 442 and 213 ± 280 USD ha−1 yr−1 respectively. These results point to hybrid cocoa grown under moderate shade of 13–25 shade trees ha−1 as optimal for reconciling climate change mitigation with development in West African cocoa. • Study concurrently evaluates financial profits and GHG balances (N 2 O & CH 4 emissions, CO 2 removals) in West African cocoa. • Plot-level indicators are evaluated across a typology obtained from sample-stratification and clustering. • Hybrid cocoa under moderate shade (13-25 shade trees ha-1) had GHG removal increment of 127% over same variety without shade. • This system too had higher mean profits, thus best reconciling GHG mitigation and economic development for the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Societe et Environnement is the property of Les Presses Agronomiques de Gembloux and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The inappropriate use of cacao clones either as female or male parents in seed gardens have been suggested as some of the reasons for the low yields of cacao hybrid varieties grown in West Africa. The concept of reciprocal effects in cacao crosses has not been well studied. To investigate the impact of maternal effect on growth and yield traits, reciprocal differences and combining abilities of recommended cacao parents in Ghana were evaluated. Six clones, comprising four important seed gardens clones used across West Africa and two clones previously used as standards in international breeding projects were crossed in a 6 × 6 complete diallel mating design to produce 30 F1 progenies. These progenies were tested in the field using a random block design with four blocks and elementary plots containing 20 plants. Growth and yield traits including stem cross-sectional area in juvenile stage, jorquette height, bean weight, number of beans per pod and bean yield were monitored over a 6-year period. Mean squares of general combining ability (GCA), specific combining ability (SCA) and reciprocal effects were significant for almost all the traits except jorquette height in SCA. This indicates that additive and non-additive gene effects are important in the inheritance of the traits. The presence of reciprocal differences for all traits suggests the influence of maternal effects in controlling the traits. Manual pollinations for commercial seed production should, therefore, follow established protocol and clones recommended as female and male parents used strictly as recommended. One of the standard clones, AMAZ15/15 had significant positive GCA effect for yield, and consistently produced progenies with high SCA values. It could be added to parental clones currently used in producing cacao varieties in the seed gardens in Ghana and other West African cacao growing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa mirids are the most important insect pests of cocoa in West Africa. This study investigated the effect of environmental parameters that are modulated by overhead shade, that is, light intensity and temperature, on nutrient and phenolic concentrations in cocoa and their subsequent effect on mirid feeding. Eight‐month‐old cocoa seedlings were maintained for 50 days in two growth chambers set to day temperatures of 25 or 30°C. Each chamber had sections with different light intensities (541, 365 and 181 μmol m−2 s−1 photosynthetically active radiation [PAR]). For the field studies at Akim Tafo in Ghana, 8‐month‐old plants of three cocoa clones were subjected to shaded (PAR = 180 μmol m−2 s−1, between 11:00 a.m. and 12:00 p.m.) and unshaded (PAR = 1,767 μmol m−2 s−1, between 11:00 a.m. and 12:00 p.m.) treatments for 50 days after which nutrient measurements and mirid choice tests were carried out. No significant effect of environment was observed on the phenolic concentration of stems under controlled environment chamber conditions. However, in the field, the phenolic concentration of stems was significantly greater for unshaded compared with shaded plants (p =.04). Under controlled conditions, the leaf nitrogen concentration increased slightly with light intensity (p =.003). The same trend was seen in stems but only at 30°C. In the field, the impact of overhead shade on nitrogen varied between cocoa clones. The concentration of carbohydrates in both leaves and stems in the field was higher under unshaded conditions. When subjected to feeding tests, stems from unshaded cocoa had significantly more mirid feeding lesions (p =.003) after 24 hr exposure to mirids compared to shaded cocoa. Mirid feeding therefore appears not to be deterred by the higher phenolic levels but rather there was a preference for cocoa tissue grown under unshaded conditions. These findings highlight the need to consider the growing environment of cocoa clones when screening for varieties with resistance to mirids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa beans are vital for the chocolate industries, with some African countries (Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon) currently having 72% of the worldwide cocoa production. However, cocoa cultivation faces many threats such as diseases and insects. The most damaging insect that attacks cocoa plant in West Africa is the mirid. The previous works on the mirids accentuate their attention on the macroscopic view of the mirids. Considering the complexity of the environment where mirids live, it is difficult to properly understand the mirids' dynamics without considering the individual behaviors of the mirids population. The representation of the mirids' dynamics enables the ability to test many use-case scenarios. To this end, Multi-agent Systems are a suitable paradigm to model complex systems bringing out the interactions between individuals and their environment, along with the impact of their behavior. Therefore, we propose in this paper an agent-based model of the mirids' dynamics in a cocoa farm. To build this model, we rely on the Agent-oriented Software Process for Engineering Complex Systems (ASPECS) process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of farm management on non-native species and the structure and function of native communities and ecosystems on crop yield is poorly documented especially in the cocoa agroforestry systems of West Africa. We assessed termite damages, cocoa plantations structural characteristic and local farmer knowledge to refine the critical role of shade trees management on subterranean crops pests and the consequences on marketable yield in five cocoa agroforestry systems. Farmers recognized termites as the most damaging subterranean pests and clearly described the type of damages they cause on cocoa trees and seedlings. Complete shade removal or very heavy shade on very old cocoa trees were responsible of the invasion of termites with negative effect on marketable yield. Some tree species, specifically fruit tree species planted in high proportion or solely may act as termite attractants and reservoirs by facilitating the building of galleries on cocoa trees. Many plant parts from roots to pods are preferred by termites with higher incidence on stems (52%), roots (34%) and young branches (27%). Damages on plant parts varied significantly with shade management. We found that the relationship between yield and the infestation of termites was weak in unshaded systems and very strong under shaded systems. We also found that the sales of agroforestry products significantly contribute to offset yield loss due to termite infestations. We conclude that intermediate shaded cocoa agroforestry systems with a diversity of shade trees will limit the outbreaks of termites. The intermediate shaded systems provide agroforestry products that offset marketable yield loss due to termites with positive impacts on income and the sustainability of cocoa production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Establishment of young cacao trees in West Africa can be severely impeded by the onset of the dry season. To address this issue, a field experiment was conducted in Ghana to examine whether different mulch treatments and irrigation applied during the dry season combined with overhead shade could improve survival, early growth and yield of cacao. The mulch treatments used were polyethylene film and coffee husks placed around the young plants. Irrigation was used as a positive control, and no mulching or irrigation was a negative control. Three shade regimes were provided through different arrangements of Gliricidia sepium and plantains. Four different cacao clones were used in the study in a replicated split-plot design. Early growth of cacao was stimulated under the irrigation and plastic mulch treatments. Higher rates of photosynthesis during the dry season appeared to underlie these increases. Significantly higher early yields were also observed under the irrigation and coffee mulch treatments compared with the control. Plant survival varied significantly between treatments; irrigation was associated with the highest plant survival (94%), followed by the plastic mulch treatment (91%), coffee husk (82%) and the control (70%). There was also an increase in survival when more intense shading was used. Under zero mulch conditions, differences in survival were observed between clones. The clones P 30 [POS] and SCA 6 were more sensitive to drought (in terms of survival) than PA 150 and T 79/501. It is concluded that relatively simple mulching techniques or controlled irrigation in conjunction with appropriate shade management can significantly improve early establishment and cropping of cacao. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theobroma cacao, the source of chocolate, is affected by destructive diseases wherever it is grown. Some diseases are endemic; however, as cacao was disseminated from the Amazon rain forest to new cultivation sites it encountered new pathogens. Two well-established diseases cause the greatest losses: black pod rot, caused by several species of Phytophthora, and witches' broom of cacao, caused by Moniliophthora perniciosa. Phytophthora megakarva causes the severest damage in the main cacao producing countries in West Africa, while P. palmivora causes significant losses globally. M. perniciosa is related to a sister basidiomycete species, M. roreri which causes frosty pod rot. These Moniliophthora species only occur in South and Central America, where they have significantly limited production since the beginnings of cacao cultivation. The basidiomycete Ceratobasidium theobromue causing vascular-streak dieback occurs only in South-East Asia and remains poorly understood. Cacao swollen shoot disease caused by Cacao swollen shoot virus is rapidly spreading in West Africa. This review presents contemporary research on the biology, taxonomy and genomics of what are often new-encounter pathogens, as well as the management of the diseases they cause. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP) is an important metric of ecosystem functioning; however, there are little empirical data on the NPP of human‐modified ecosystems, particularly smallholder, perennial crops like cocoa (Theobroma cacao), which are extensive across the tropics. Human‐appropriated NPP (HANPP) is a measure of the proportion of a natural system's NPP that has either been reduced through land‐use change or harvested directly and, previously, has been calculated to estimate the scale of the human impact on the biosphere. Additionally, human modification can create shifts in NPP allocation and decomposition, with concomitant impacts on the carbon cycle. This study presents the results of 3 years of intensive monitoring of forest and smallholder cocoa farms across disturbance, management intensity, distance from forest and farm age gradients. We measured among the highest reported NPP values in tropical forest, 17.57 ± 2.1 and 17.7 ± 1.6 Mg C ha−1 year−1 for intact and logged forest, respectively; however, the average NPP of cocoa farms was still higher, 18.8 ± 2.5 Mg C ha−1 year−1, which we found was driven by cocoa pod production. We found a dramatic shift in litterfall residence times, where cocoa leaves decomposed more slowly than forest leaves and shade tree litterfall decomposed considerably faster, indicating significant changes in rates of nutrient cycling. The average HANPP value for all cocoa farms was 2.1 ± 1.1 Mg C ha−1 year−1; however, depending on the density of shade trees, it ranged from −4.6 to 5.2 Mg C ha−1 year−1. Therefore, rather than being related to cocoa yield, HANPP was reduced by maintaining higher shade levels. Across our monitored farms, 18.9% of farm NPP was harvested (i.e., whole cocoa pods) and only 1.1% (i.e., cocoa beans) was removed from the system, suggesting that the scale of HANPP in smallholder cocoa agroforestry systems is relatively small. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mirids (Sahbergella singularis and/or Distantiella theobroma) are the major pests of cacao farms in Africa. Cocoa production losses due to these species have been widely documented in West Africa. However, their impact on cocoa production is unknown in Central Africa, especially in Cameroon. Moreover, no data are available on the threshold level of fruits tolerance to mirid attacks. For these reasons, we assessed the effect of S. singularis on the productivity of ten cacao genotypes as well as the threshold number of the lethal feeding punctures to fruits under a randomized experimental design. Observations were made on three categories of fruits (cherelle, immature and mature/ripe). A control trial was also set up per batch. The overall results showed that 68.0% and 0.4% of fruits aborted, respectively, in mirid and control trials. The percentages of aborted fruits were significantly (p < 5%) different between cacao genotypes and ranged from 20 to 100%. Bonferroni test revealed six homogenous groups for cacao genotypes susceptibility to mirid attacks; SNK52 proved to be most tolerant/resistant, whereas two genotypes (UPA138 and SNK67) revealed more sensitive. In contrast, six genotypes (SNK07, IMC60 × SNK417, T60/887 × PA7, T79/501 × SNK479, UPA143 × ICS84, UPA143 × NA33) displayed similar sensitivity to mirid attacks. ANOVA showed that the threshold tolerance of tested fruits, expressed by the mean numbers of lethal feeding punctures, to S. singularis attacks was comparable between cacao genotypes. This new quantitative database improves our knowledge on the (i) threshold tolerance of fruits to S. singularis attacks and (ii) economic impact of this pest on cocoa production in Cameroon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction of clones from genetic groups that are underrepresented in the pedigree of commercial cacao varieties in West Africa represents an important aspect of cacao improvement strategy of broadening the genetic base to overcome current yield stagnation of the crop. The objective of the present study was to determine the combining abilities of more recently introduced cacao clones for yield and cropping efficiency in the early bearing years. Seven recently introduced clones were crossed as males to five clones commonly used in the seed gardens in Ghana using a North Carolina II design. The 35 F1 varieties and one commercial variety were evaluated in the field from June 2010 to March 2015 for four traits: increase in trunk cross-sectional area in the juvenile, and in the pod-bearing phases, bean yield and cropping efficiency. Though both GCA and SCA variances were significant for all traits, the ratios of GCA:SCA were much smaller than unity, indicating the importance of non-additive effects in the control of the traits. Among the set of clones therefore, prediction of F1 variety performance cannot be based on the GCA or per se (average) performance of the clones. Six varieties were more precocious, and eight had higher cropping efficiencies than the standard variety. Bean yields ranged from 0.74 to 1.05 t/ha/year in the fourth and fifth years after planting among the top six varieties. The study provides evidence of the large potential for productivity increase through the use of cacao clones beyond Pound's early introductions into West Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Fertilizer effects on cacao were studied on fruit, tree and plantation level. • Fertilizer application stimulated pod production in the late rain season in West Africa. • Fertilizer application increased pod size and bean content but not pod number. Fertilizer application in cacao production systems in West Africa yields highly variable results, ranging from no effect to doubling of the yield. Mechanisms underlying yield responses to increased nutrient availability are still largely unkown. In this study, we assessed how fertilizer application affects pod development and production of cacao trees in a full sun cocoa system in Côte d'Ivoire and a shaded cocoa system in Ghana. We monitored pod growth over time and the number of pods produced simultaneously on the trees in the minor and major harvest seasons. Furthermore, we measured nutrient concentrations in cherelles and beans and husks of developing pods in the major harvest season to estimate the total nutrients allocated to developing pods per tree. Lastly, we performed detailed yield measurements (number of pods, location in the tree (canopy or trunk), pod size and bean content) in 2020 for the plot in Côte d'Ivoire. Our results showed that, in the major harvest season, pods on fertilized trees grew wider (average: 15.4 cm) than pods on unfertilized trees (average: 11.9 cm). A higher pod growth rate resulted in a larger final pod size; larger pods took longer to mature. In the major harvest season, more cherelles on fertilized trees than on unfertilized trees reached maturity despite having an equal or lower nutrient content. Competition for assimilates rather than nutrients seems to induce cherelle wilt. In pods past wilting stage, fertilizer application slightly influenced nutrient dynamics of developing pods but not the final nutrient content in ripe pods. Lastly, increased nutrient availaibility did not change the absolute number of pods a tree produced annually. However, fertilizer application did increase the estimated annual dry bean yields from 2260 kg ha−1 to 2930 kg ha−1 by increasing the number of pods that developed during the major harvest season, when pods were heavier and the bean weight within the pods was relatively higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Central/West Africa is one of the most biodiverse regions on earth and one of the largest producers of cacao, producing about 68.4 % of the world's chocolate. Here, cacao pests and diseases can cause losses of $761 million annually. However, no studies from Africa have quantified the role of flying vertebrates as pest suppressors in cacao plantations. We used an exclusion experiment to prevent access of bats and birds to cacao trees for 12 months and quantified how their absence affected arthropod communities, herbivory, and cacao crop yield. Overall, important pests such as mealybugs and other hemipterans were more abundant in exclosures (9 and 1.6 times increase, respectively), despite potential multitrophic interactions with simultaneously increasing predatory arthropods such as spiders and mantis. Under heavy shade (90 %), cacao trees with flying vertebrate exclosures had 3.9 times fewer flowers and 3.2 times fewer large pods than control trees, corresponding to estimated losses on average of $478 ha−1y−1. Under low tree-level shade cover (10 %) however, the opposite pattern was evident: exclosure trees had 5.2 times more flowers and 3.7 times more large pods than control trees, corresponding to estimated savings on average of $796 ha−1y−1. We demonstrate that the enormous potential of African flying vertebrates as pest suppressors in cacao plantations is dependent on local shade tree management and only economically relevant above 50 % of shade. Despite higher productivity at low shade levels, our findings encourage African policymakers and farmers to adopt more high shade cacao agroforestry systems to maximize pest suppression services provided by bats and birds. Central/West Africa produces most of the Earth's cacao. Bats and birds are important pest suppressors in Asian and American cacao farms. We present results from a 1 yearlong exclusion experiment conducted in Cameroon. Bats and birds suppressed the population of the Mealybug pest and other Hemipterans. Farmer's savings due to pest suppression was dependent on tree-level shade cover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global cocoa production is largely concentrated in West Africa where over 70% of cocoa is produced. Here, cocoa farming is largely a rain-fed, low-input system with low average yields, which are expected to decline with climate change. With increasing demand, there is a need to evaluate opportunities to increase production whilst avoiding deforestation and expansion to croplands. Thus, it is important to know how much additional cocoa can be produced on existing farmland, and what factors determine this potential for increased yield. The objective was to quantify the cocoa yield gap in Ghana and identify the factors that can contribute to narrowing the gap. We calculated the cocoa yield gap as the difference between potential yield (i. water-limited potential(Yw) quantified using a crop model, ii. attainable yield in high-input systems(Y E), iii. attainable yield in low-input systems(Y F)) and actual farmer yield. Both absolute and relative yield gaps were calculated. We then related each yield gap (absolute & relative) as a function of environment and management variables using mixed-effects models. There were considerable yield gaps on all cocoa farms. Maximum water-limited yield gaps (YG W) were very large with a mean absolute gap of 4577 kg/ha representing 86% of Yw. Attainable yield gap in high-input (YG E) was lower with mean absolute gap of 1930 kg/ha representing 73% of Y E. The yield gap in low-input (YG F) was even lower with mean absolute gap of 469 kg/ha representing 42% of Y F. Mixed-effects models showed that, absolute YG W were larger at sites with higher precipitation in the minor wet and minimum temperature in the minor dry season explaining 22% of the variability in YG W. These same factors and cocoa planting density explained 28% of variability in absolute YG E. Regardless of climate, absolute YG F and relative YG W, YG E and YG F were reduced by increasing cocoa planting density and application of fungicide against black pod. The models explained 25% of the variability in absolute YG F , and 33%, 33% and 25% in relative YG W, YG E and YG F respectively. In conclusion, climate determined absolute YG W in Ghana whilst absolute YG E were determined by both climate and management. In contrast, absolute YG F and relative YG W, YG E and YG F can be reduced by agronomic management practices. Our study is one of the first to quantify cocoa yield gaps in West Africa and shows that these can be closed by improved agronomic practices. [Display omitted] • Increasing cocoa yields per unit area is a means to meet growing demand, secure food security& reduce pressure on forest. • We quantified cocoa yield gap by comparing water-limited, attainable yield in high- & low-input systems with farmer yields. • Considerable yield gaps on all cocoa farms but water-limited yield gaps were much larger than in high- and low-input systems. • Relative yield gaps are substantial, and driven mostly by management practices, cocoa tree density & black pod control. • Improved agronomic practices offer opportunities to substantially increase production of present-day cocoa plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytophthora megakarya Brasier & Griffin, is one of the Oomycete pathogens reported on Theobroma cacao, and it is the most virulent of the Phytophthora species that causes black pod disease. Phytophthora megakarya was first reported as the causal agent of black pod disease in 1979 after the reclassification of Phytophthora species recovered from infected cacao tissues. The pathogen causes pod rot, also referred to as black pod disease of T. cacao, and is only endemic to West and Central Africa. Phytophthora megakarya has spread westwards from Cameroon through Nigeria and Togo, to the major cocoa producing countries of Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, and southwards to Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. Phytophthora megakarya has become the main yield-limiting factor in cocoa production in the sub region, rapidly surpassing P. palmivora. The menace of P. megakarya on cacao is of great concern to cocoa farmers and scientists, but the processes underlying the emergence of P. megakarya on cacao are unknown. There is, thus, increased need for fundamental knowledge on the diversity and epidemiology of P. megakarya in order to develop effective and sustainable methods for its control. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge on the origin, distribution and biology of P. megakarya, in West Africa and evaluates the efficacy of current control methods. We highlight quarantine as a means of limiting the introduction of P. megakarya into other cocoa growing regions, and also discuss cultural and biological control and use of resistant/tolerant varieties as major components of an integrated disease management strategy for the disease. The need for research into integrated management of the disease with emphasis on biocontrol and use of resistant varieties, and applying genomic information and tools from T. cacao and from other Oomycetes for managing P. megakarya are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tropical tree crop Theobroma cacao L. is grown commercially for its beans, which are used in the production of cocoa butter and chocolate. Although the upper Amazon region is the center of origin for cacao, 70% of the world's supply of cacao beans currently comes from small farms in West Africa. While cacao breeding programs in producer nations are the source of improved planting material, modern marker-based breeding is difficult to perform due to the lack of genotyping facilities in these countries. While DNA extraction can be routinely performed, the equipment needed to analyze simple sequence repeats (SSRs) is seldom available, forcing the outsourcing of genotyping to foreign laboratories and delaying the breeding process. We describe a 5′ nuclease (TaqMan)-based single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assay for genotyping cacao plants under conditions similar to those found in most cacao-producing areas. The assay was tested under field conditions by planting open pollinated seeds of seven pods from four different maternal plants. The resulting 171 seedlings were successfully genotyped with 18 SNP markers representing 12 loci. The ability to use temperature-stable reagents and rapid DNA extraction methods is also explored. Additionally, by examining the seedling genotypes for the SNP markers and 14 additional SSR markers, we investigated whether seeds in a pod are the result of single or multiple pollination events. This simple, effective method of genotyping cacao seedlings in the field should allow for more efficient resource management of seed gardens and is currently being implemented in Ghana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Soil and atmospheric water stresses' effect on cacao's transpiration are independent. • Atmospheric stress reduced the canopy density by one third regardless of irrigation. • An extra third of the canopy density was lost due to soil water stress in the control. • Soil moisture and air vapour pressure are the key drivers of cacao sap velocity. • Cacao transpiration may be more limited by root uptake than canopy conductivity. In West Africa, Harmattan-induced atmospheric and soil droughts represent seasonally recurring hazards for Theobroma cacao L. agro-ecosystems. Under the influence of the Harmattan winds, precipitation is impaired and air humidity and temperature reach stressful levels. Climate change is causing an increase in temperature that will drive up the evaporative power of the atmosphere, risking to harshen both the soil and atmospheric stress. This would further threaten the viability of cacao cultivation in this region. To characterize the response of cacao trees to atmospheric and soil drought, we monitored two sub-plots, with and without irrigation, throughout one Harmattan season (November 2019 - March 2020) in the Eastern region in Ghana. For both treatments we recorded: sap flow velocity, photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) above and below the canopy, soil moisture, temperature, air humidity and daily precipitation. Leaf area index (LAI) was estimated from PAR measurements. To characterize drought responses of mature cocoa trees during the day and at the seasonal scale, we developed two boosted regression trees models (BRT) with the environmental variables measured. The atmospheric component of Harmattan-induced drought was found to affect the canopy to a similar extent as soil water stress, both causing a decline in LAI of 33%. This study confirmed the importance of soil drought but highlighted as well the crucial role of atmospheric drought for this species' transpiration control. Soil and atmospheric water stresses did not have a synergistic effect on transpiration under the studied conditions. The BRT models identified LAI as one of the most influential drivers for sap velocity, which, in turn was sensitive to the interactive effect of both atmospheric and soil drought. Our results highlight that not only reduced precipitation but also increasing atmospheric drought is likely to negatively impact on cacao production in West Africa under increasingly dry conditions imposed by the influence of the Harmattan winds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is one of the world's most important agricultural commodity crops with the largest share of global production concentrated in West Africa. Current on-farm yields in this region are low and are expected to decrease in response to climate change, through warming and shifts in rainfall. Interventions intended to improve yields and climate adaptation require an understanding of the main drivers of yields across farms. In this regard, we quantified the extent to which environmental (i.e., climate and soil) conditions drive cocoa yields and how this differs for farms achieving on average low- and high mean production levels based on an unprecedented dataset of 3827 cocoa farms spanning the environmental gradients of Ghana. We further quantified the relative importance of management practices based on a subset of 134 farms for which management information was available. We modelled on-farm annual cocoa yield as a function of environmental variables for the large dataset and cocoa yield per tree as a function of environmental and management variables for the subset farms using mixed-effects models. Differences in effects on yield between farms with low and high mean production levels were evaluated using quantile mixed-effects models. There was considerable variability in yields across farms, ranging from ~100 to >1000 kg ha−1 (mean = 554 kg ha−1). Mixed-effects models showed that the fixed effects (i.e., environmental variables) only explained 7% of the variability in yields whilst fixed and random effects together explained 80%, suggesting that farm-to-farm variation played a large role. Explained variation in cocoa yields per tree of 134 farms in the subset increased from 10% to 25% when including management variables in addition to environmental variables. In both models, climate-related factors had a larger effect on yields than edaphic factors, with radiation of the main dry season and that of the previous year having the strongest effects on on-farm- and tree yields, respectively. The quantile regression analyses showed that productivity in high-yielding farms (90th percentile) was more strongly driven by environmental factors than in low-yielding farms (10th percentile). In conclusion, agronomic management is the dominant determinant of on-farm cocoa yields in Ghana, more so than environmental conditions. Furthermore, high-yielding cocoa farms are more sensitive to environmental conditions than low-yielding ones. Our findings suggests that good agricultural practices need to be in place before investing in additional climate adaptation practices. [Display omitted] • Interventions intended to improve yields & climate adaptation requires an understanding of yield drivers at farm level. • Drivers of cocoa yield & its relevance for farms with different production levels were unraveled with unprecedented dataset. • Cocoa farms with high yields are more sensitive to environmental conditions than farms with low yields. • Climate effects on on-farm cocoa yields were stronger than soil effects, but management effects were most important. • Good agricultural practices need to be in place before investing in additional climate adaptation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on cacao production in West and Central Africa. Absence of significant damage caused to soil resources by cacao cultivation; Superiority of cacao agroforest to alternative food crop production land use in terms of carbon sequestration and below-and above-ground bio-diversity; Suggestions for improving cacao production.

• Most cocoa orchards in West Africa are overaged and farmers prefer to abandon them and create new ones at forest expense. • Termite infestation and damage are more important in old farms than young ones. • Rehabilitation pruning could represent a solution for farm rejuvenation and prevent termite outbreaks. • Rehabilitation pruning improved cocoa tree vigor and yield in cocoa agroforestry systems. • Rehabilitation pruning is a suitable practice to rejuvenate aging trees and increase short-term cocoa yield. Most smallholder cocoa farmers in West Africa are not equipped with the necessary tools, techniques, and practices to rejuvenate their aging cocoa farms. Instead, they rather prefer to establish new cocoa farms at the expense of forest remnants. Poor management of their overaged farms has resulted in the emergence and outbreaks of new pest species such as termites feeding on the remaining productive trees and negatively affecting overall yield. We investigated how rehabilitation pruning of cocoa trees influences termite outbreaks and yield in three cocoa agroforestry systems (rustic, intermediate and full sun systems). We monitored cocoa and non-cocoa trees at different development stages after rehabilitation pruning and assessed termite diversity and damage. We demonstrated that farm rehabilitation practices are associated with high beta diversity of shade trees and linked with a high diversity of beneficial termite species. Cocoa trees and farm age were positively correlated with the level of infestation by termite species. We also showed that rehabilitation practices improve cocoa tree vigor and yield in cocoa agroforestry systems with the intermediate systems as the most productive after pruning (167 % of yield increase after pruning). Rehabilitation pruning is a suitable practice to rejuvenate aging trees and increase short-term cocoa yield while mitigating the negative effects of insect pests such as termites. It could be recommended as an effective measure for sustainable cocoa production, thereby enhancing ecosystem services provided by local biodiversity and avoiding forest clearance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mirids, Sahlbergella singularis and Distantiella theobroma (Heteroptera: Miridae), are the main cacao pests in West Africa. Females of both species produce sex pheromones composed of hexyl (R)-3-((E)-2-butenoyl)-butyrate and hexyl (R)-3-hydroxybutyrate, the major and minor components, respectively. Lures composed of 1000:500 μg blends of the two components pre-aged for 2, 4, 8 and 12 weeks in a gauze-walled insectary were compared with fresh lures in a field experiment in Ghana. Lures were replaced monthly. A total of 272 S. singularis , all male, was caught. Fresh lures and those pre-aged for 2 and 4 weeks caught similar numbers in a month while lures pre-aged for 8 and 12 weeks caught 34% and 26%, respectively, than fresh lures (83). The attractiveness of five different pheromone blends were compared in a 15-month field trapping experiment. A total of 701 S. singularis , all male, was caught. The highest numbers were caught in traps releasing both components with no significant difference among 1000:50, 1000:500 and 1000:1000 μg blends. Traps releasing hexyl (R)-3-((E)-2-butenoyl)-butyrate alone caught over 98% fewer individuals than two-component blends, and those releasing hexyl (R)-3-hydroxybutyrate alone caught similarly low numbers to unbaited controls. We recommend that 2:1 blend lures, renewed at least every two months are used for mass-trapping cacao mirids. The results are discussed in relation to previously published mirid pheromone blend optimisation and longevity studies. • Lures releasing two pheromone components are essential for trapping cacao mirids. • The ratio of the blend of major and minor components is non-critical. • Lures should be replaced after two months exposure to prevent loss of efficacy. • Potentially pheromone traps could benefit mirid management on organic cacao farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Shade trees have a complex, and inconsistent, role in climate change adaptation. • Cocoa root trait expression varied with climato-edaphic conditions. • Cocoa absorptive root trait response to agroforestry was environment specific. • Cocoa transport root traits were affected by soil texture rather than shade trees. • Soil texture may moderate agroforestry success in climate change adaptation. The diversification of agroecosystems with shade trees has a complex role in climate change adaptation. Multiple interactions among shade tree composition, heterogeneous soil conditions, and resulting microclimate modifications makes reproducible evaluations of agroforestry as a climate change adaptation practice challenging. In this study we systematically investigate soil water and nutrient acquisition strategies in cocoa (Theobroma cacao) along a climatic and diversity gradient in Ghana, West Africa. We adopted a functional trait-based approach to comparatively examine cocoa root strategies in monoculture or in agroforestry with a single species of shade tree (Terminalia ivorensis) across two precipitation regimes (optimal and suboptimal dry), and in contrasting edaphic conditions (sandy and loam). Variance decomposition indicated that shade trees explained 20 % of the variability in absorptive root trait covariation in cocoa. However, shade tree effects on trait expression were not systematic and depended on climatic and edaphic conditions. Notably, effects of shade trees were amplified on fine-textured soils, with significantly higher conservative trait values of cocoa absorptive roots when in agroforestry within a suboptimal precipitation regime. Transport root traits (root tissue density, diameter) associated with water and solute transport strongly varied among contrasting climate and edaphic conditions. Structural equation models indicated that soil texture played a critical role in regulating transport root trait expression. In agroforestry, clay content improved soil moisture levels, and, in suboptimal climate, fine root growth rates were positively affected by specific leaf area while being significantly controlled by soil texture. Results describe the importance of soil texture in controlling the effect of shade trees on cocoa cultivated in suboptimal precipitation regimes. Thus, agroforestry success as a climate change adaptation strategy in cocoa systems requires detailed assessments of crop strategies in different climatic conditions, as well as identification of soil-mediated filters on crop function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving management practices of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) cultivation especially under future climate change requires knowledge of yield gaps and their determining factors. In this study, we assessed yield gaps and their determining factors through multiple regression modelling in smallholder cocoa agroforestry systems in Ghana along a climatic gradient. The studied zones referred to as dry, mid and wet with annual rainfall of 1200, 1200–1400 and 1400–2000 mm respectively, represent established "climate suitability zones" across the cocoa belt of West Africa, where 70% of the global cocoa is produced. Data was collected from 150 cocoa farmers and their plantation across the zones. Information about socioeconomic and management characteristics was collected through interviews. In each plantation, soil characteristics and cocoa plantation properties were recorded. Yield data for three consecutive years (2012/13–2014/15) and soil properties (0–30 cm layer) were analysed. Yield gap was estimated as the difference between attainable yield (AY) and actual farmers yield (FY) in each zone based on the approach of maximum farmer yields determined from survey. Average farmer and attainable yield of 211 and 645 kg ha−1 year−1 in the dry, 477 and 1174 kg ha−1 year−1 in the mid and 999 and 2125 kg ha−1 year−1 in the wet zone were recorded, respectively. Relative yield gaps were significantly larger in the dry (67%) than the wet zone (53%). In the dry zone with significantly older farmers (average age of 64), increasing labour cost (use of hired labour) significantly reduced yield gap. Contrary, increasing labour cost significantly increased yield gap in the mid zone where plantations were significantly larger. Yield gap increased significantly with increasing farmer age (54 years) in the mid zone but decreased significantly with farmer age (47 years) in the wet zone. Significant positive relationship between plantation size and yield gap was observed in both mid and wet zones. Soil available phosphorous (P) and fungicide use significantly reduced yield gap in the dry and mid zones. Finally, quantity of pesticide, proportion of hybrid cocoa plants and number of trainings received by farmers significantly reduced yield gap in the wet zone. In the dry zone, closing the yield gap against the climate risk might be unlikely. Transformation into more drought resistant systems such as cashew might be promising. However, in the mid and wet zones, labour availability for effective management of large plantations might be the major barrier for intensification, which needs to be addressed by intervention strategies. • Yield gaps and determining factors assessed through multiple regression modelling. • Variations in yield gaps exist among the different cocoa climate suitability zones. • High relative yield gap in dry zone due to low intensification and climatic risk. • Labour and available P significantly determined yield gap in the dry and mid zones. • Access to trainings and use of hybrid seeds reduced yield gaps in the wet zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The incidence of cacao swollen shoot disease (CSSD) in cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) has increased in West Africa since ~2000. To investigate the genomic and species diversity of the CSSD-badnaviruses infecting cacao in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, symptomatic leaves were subjected to high-throughput sequencing. Among the 30 newly determined genomes, three badnaviruses were identified, Cacao swollen shoot Togo B virus (CSSTBV), Cacao swollen shoot CD virus, and Cacao swollen shoot CE virus (CSSCEV). The phylogenetic trees reconstructed for the reverse transcriptase (RT) and ribonuclease H (RNase H) sequences were incongruent with the complete viral genomes, which had the most robust statistical support. Recombination seems to be involved in the CSSD-badnavirus diversification. The genomic diversity varied among different CSSD-badnaviruses, with CSSTBV showing the lowest nucleotide diversity (π = 0.06236), and CSSCEV exhibiting the greatest variability (π = 0.21911). Evidence of strong purifying selection was found in the coding regions of the CSSTBV isolates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• In-depth study of the composition of a bulk and a fine-flavor cocoa liquor and chocolate. • Investigation of volatile (HS-SPME GC–MS) and non-volatile metabolites (UPLC-HRMS). • A wide range of non-volatile compounds, both polyphenols and non-phenolic compounds, could be identified and quantified. • Principal component analysis revealed the main distinctive (non-)volatile constituents. • The suggested approach results in a thorough comparison of cocoa samples. Cocoa products are obtained from the seeds of Theobroma cacao L. In this research, cocoa liquor and chocolate produced from cocoa beans from West Africa (Forastero, "bulk" cacao) and Ecuador (Nacional variety, "fine-flavor" cacao), were investigated, using a novel approach in which various analytical techniques are combined in order to obtain in-depth knowledge of the studied cocoa samples. The levels of various classes of primary metabolites were determined and a wide range of secondary metabolites, including volatile organic acids, aldehydes, esters, pyrazines, polyphenols, methylxanthines and biogenic amines, were identified and/or quantified by HS-SPME GC–MS (headspace-solid phase microextraction gas chromatography - mass spectrometry). and UPLC-HRMS (ultra-performance liquid chromatography - high resolution mass spectrometry). Odor Activity Values (OAV) were calculated to assess the contribution of individual volatiles on the final aroma. Various volatile aroma compounds were more abundant in the West African cocoa liquor and chocolate, while the Ecuadorian samples were richer in most quantified non-volatile metabolites. Principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed that the four samples can be clearly distinguished. Alcohols, pyrazines, amino acids and biogenic amines were found to be highly influential in causing this differentiation. The proposed approach can be useful in future studies on more extensive cocoa sample collections, in order to highlight similarities and pinpoint typical differences in chemical composition among these samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The narrow level of diversity of cacao varieties that are currently cultivated in West Africa has been suggested as one of the major problems to yield improvement of the crop in its major production countries. In this study, combining abilities and heritability for growth and yield traits in 12 underrepresented cacao parents of diverse genetic groups were estimated using these as females in crosses with three tester parents. Progenies obtained from a North Carolina II (NC II) incomplete factorial mating design together with three standard varieties were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with four replications at two contrasting locations for three growth traits (percentage survival, trunk cross-sectional area in the juvenile stage (TCSAj), and jorquette height) and four yield traits (bean weight, number of beans per pod, bean yield, and yield efficiency). Mean performance of the progenies was significant (p < 0.05) for all the traits involved and progenies of some specific crosses performed better than the best standard variety. The female GCA, male GCA, and SCA male × female interaction effects were significant, which suggest that both additive and dominant effects are important in the inheritance of traits. Heritability was moderate to high (H2 = 0.35–0.70) for broad sense and low (h2ns = 0.17–0.30) for narrow sense. This indicates that even though the expression of traits is controlled by genes, it may partly be influenced by the environment. Parental clones A1/197 and DOM 3 which had significant positive GCA effect consistently produced progenies with high SCA values for most of the traits. Results from the study indicate that the underrepresented cacao clones represent a suitable genetic resource for broadening parental clones of current cacao varieties cultivated in Ghana and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]