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At the same time teachers and administrators grapple with how to develop teachers' understanding of diversity, equity, and inclusion in the classroom, recent legislative sessions have unleashed a flood of legislation that seeks to limit teachers from teaching about race, racism, oppression, and injustice in U.S. schools. Teachers are struggling with how to balance student engagement and interest while also tackling these large, complex, and difficult topics. Unfortunately, the continued practice of using classroom simulations that attempt to undertake these difficult topics does not meet the challenge. This article examines the potential dangers when using classroom simulations to teach sensitive topics and provides strategies for teachers to create engaging and innovative lessons that educate and empower, and do not marginalize students in the process. To create classrooms that are safe and affirming, the practice of using classroom simulations needs a renewed examination, particularly ones that delve into culturally and historically sensitive topics.

In the present study, the studies conducted on educational games between 1965 and 2019 were analyzed to determine the trends in research based on the year of publication, topic, publication type, country, target audience and the concepts included in the study title. In the study, 7141 studies that were accessed with "educational games" keyword on the ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) database were analyzed. The abstract data were classified by a software developed by the authors for analysis and the analysis was conducted in two stages. First, the studies on educational games were examined as a group, and then the most studied topics were analyzed separately. The study findings demonstrated that the number of studies on educational games was the highest in 2016 and the prominent topics included instructional methods, learning activities, simulations, and classroom activities. It was determined that digital games were investigated as a type of educational games extensively in studies conducted since 2000, the major type of publication was journal articles, and Australia was the leading country in publications. It was determined that practitioners were the major audience until 2000, and the studies on teachers were prominent since. It was determined that the most frequent concepts in study titles included learning, instruction, simulation, school, game-based, design, computer, science, and mathematics and games, respectively.

Extant research has identified the significance of technological affordances in computer-supported learning environments. However, until recently, there is scarcely empirical research on affordances for organizing collaboration in these learning environments. To address this gap, this study empirically examines affordances for organizing collaboration in a simulation-based learning environment. We focus, in particular on understanding how the organizing affordances of the learning environment are perceived and employed by the learners during a simulation-based learning task. The study was executed among 177 undergraduate higher education (HE) business students from 10 universities in Belgium, China, Estonia, New Zealand, the USA, Austria, and Finland. The data were obtained from the students' reflective essays, and analyzed with a qualitative content analytical approach. The results of our analyses yield in four types of organizing affordances: (1) organizing the division of work, (2) managing information and resources, (3) managing tasks, and (4) strategizing. Each type of organizing affordance was required in the joint learning task. The study offers an advanced understanding of affordances for organizing and of their use/nonuse in simulation-based learning environments. The findings of this study have theoretical and empirical implications and can contribute to both the development of pedagogic and educational practices as well as the design of learning tasks and environments.

Purpose: Finance is a male-dominated field of work. This study aims to understand if learning in finance follows the same pattern. Furthermore, the authors want to understand if foreign female students are subject to the same cultural norms and sorting mechanisms as their counterparts from the USA or Finland. Design/methodology/approach: In the context of a capstone course, students of two well-known international business programs (one in the USA, the other in Finland) participate in a business simulation. The authors surveyed the students on their learning experience across different business functions. The authors collected 440 responses over five years. Findings: A gender gap exists in learning finance. Females surveyed reported learning less (9%-15%) than males. However, foreign females reported learning more (11%-17%). Additionally, the authors find no gender gap in learning of other business functions (i.e. marketing and strategy). Foreign females seem to bypass traditional roles and sorting mechanisms. Originality/value: To the best of the authors' knowledge, this study is the first to document the moderating effect of foreignness on the gender gap in learning.

This paper enriches the existing set of global trade negotiation simulations by incorporating explicit, country-specific domestic political consequences incurred from trade concessions. Several semesters of testing with undergraduate students in the U.S. and master's students in Argentina demonstrate that the simulation statistically significantly enhances students' understanding of the role that domestic political pressures play in preventing negotiators from reaching the first-best trade regime. Students learn-by-doing that conflicting country philosophies regarding free trade vary substantially not only between developed and developing countries, but also depending on the geography and key industries of each country. The simulation also provides students with current, realistic economic values for the country and the world from freeing trade. Seventeen country tables provide instructors with tremendous flexibility in structuring the negotiation framework. A complete instructor's manual with a detailed description of how to use the simulation, all student handouts and an Excel file that automatically calculates point totals is available via e-mail from the corresponding author.

The study of educational simulations at the secondary level has typically centered on programs that are competitive, shorter in duration, and characterized by their low fidelity, or a lack of realism. The resources required to hold longer, more immersive, and nuanced programs are often prohibitive for teachers of political science programs. As such, their effects on student learning outcomes have remained relatively unknown. In this paper, we explore the impact of a Model G20 (MG20) curriculum for high school and early college-aged students on students' sense of self-efficacy and 21st century skills. MG20 is a weeklong, immersive international conference modeled after the real G20 summit. In it, students learn about global governance and roleplay as heads of state and government ministers to negotiate for their collective interests. Using a mixed methods approach, we examine student learning outcomes from two MG20 summits, held in the United States and in the UK. Results show that internationally diverse, immersive, collaborative role-playing simulations significantly improve students' self-ascribed cross-cultural communication and public speaking skills, as well as students' sense self-efficacy. This research suggests future study into new and emerging formats of educational simulations may reveal greater potential for such programs to enhance student learning.

This report from the field presents a field-based program designed to prepare teachers to serve diverse children and families by emphasizing the "actual" practices that inform family-teacher partnerships. We argue that collaborative relationships across and among families and teachers can result in "mining gems" of knowledge that reside in students, families, communities, and schools for the enrichment of teaching and learning. We elaborate on the design of case-based, simulated parent-teacher conferences that provide teacher candidates with opportunities to learn to enact productive partnerships with families. Our design process resulted in a fictitious case featuring a Mexican American student, Marco, and his mother, Mrs. Silva. We designed the case such that Marco's academic knowledge is related to his home-based experiences to emphasize that such experiences can support academic learning. To create this authentic case--a goal of this report from the field--we drew upon school-based observations to describe Marco's academic and social experiences. To authenticate the case, we interviewed informants who had characteristics in common with that of Mrs. Silva or whose professional experience aligned with the teaching scenario. The case includes descriptive information gleaned from the perspective (a) of a teacher who observes the student in her class, and (b) of a mother who knows the child holistically. This information is used by a teacher candidate (playing the role of the teacher) and an instructional team member (playing the role of Mrs. Silva) during a 10-minute simulation of a parent--teacher conference.

Young children often struggle to answer the question "what would have happened?" particularly in cases where the adult-like "correct" answer has the same outcome as the event that actually occurred. Previous work has assumed that children fail because they cannot engage in accurate counterfactual simulations. Children have trouble considering what to change and what to keep fixed when comparing counterfactual alternatives to reality. However, most developmental studies on counterfactual reasoning have relied on binary yes/no responses to counterfactual questions about complex narratives and so have only been able to document when these failures occur but not why and how. Here, we investigate counterfactual reasoning in a domain in which specific counterfactual possibilities are very concrete: simple collision interactions. In Experiment 1, we show that 5- to 10-year-old children (recruited from schools and museums in Connecticut) succeed in making predictions but struggle to answer binary counterfactual questions. In Experiment 2, we use a multiple-choice method to allow children to select a specific counterfactual possibility. We find evidence that 4- to 6-year-old children (recruited online from across the United States) do conduct counterfactual simulations, but the counterfactual possibilities younger children consider differ from adult-like reasoning in systematic ways. Experiment 3 provides further evidence that young children engage in simulation rather than using a simpler visual matching strategy. Together, these experiments show that the developmental changes in counterfactual reasoning are not simply a matter of whether children engage in counterfactual simulation but also how they do so.

This McCloy Lecture sheds light on the "hidden profession" of Physical Education Teacher Educators (PETEs) by sharing my perspectives on the challenges and opportunities faced by PETE scholars and teachers globally. I begin with an overview of my biography and how it has influenced my thinking about PETE. I present some scholarly critiques of PETE, a selection of PETE research findings and address key policy issues within teacher education across several national educational systems describing how Physical Education teacher educators manage (or not) the challenges and opportunities in the practice of teacher education in modern-day universities. I draw on data from my international study of experienced Physical Education teacher educators about the nature of their work in academe and the status of physical education teacher education locally, nationally and globally. I also draw on the perspectives of Irish teacher educators about the challenges of being active producers and users of research in a challenging national policy context. I conclude with a set of observations about how best to build capacity among Physical Education teacher educators so they can thrive as research active and innovative teachers in the modern university.

Challenges to the Arctic region abound and intersect. Warming, ice and permafrost melting, and pollution jeopardize health and food security of Indigenous and other Northern communities. Problems related to natural resource extraction and shipping are developing. Because these issues cross sovereign boundaries, they must be addressed multilaterally. The Arctic Council is the principal forum in which Arctic states and Indigenous groups address shared concerns in the region. We co-administered a five-day program on science and diplomacy in the Arctic at Dartmouth College in June 2017 to educate postsecondary students on Arctic challenges and governance, foster skills and confidence related to leadership and diplomacy, and inspire civic action in Arctic and international affairs. The program consisted of lectures, discussions, a teamwork and collaboration exercise, a negotiation workshop, and a Model Arctic Council (MAC)--a simulation of delegates' work in the Arctic Council. We found that students had strongly positive perceptions of the curriculum and felt that they accrued Arctic-related awareness and skills, while developing enthusiasm for engaging in civic affairs. Students attributed the program's value to the use of multiple pedagogies, especially simulation, an interdisciplinary environment, and mentorship from and engagement with Arctic Council and other practitioners.

In peer nomination research, individuals who do not provide nominations (nonparticipants) are often included on rosters as potential nominees. This can present ethical questions regarding informed consent, but psychometric consequences of excluding nonparticipants from rosters are unknown. In this investigation, Study 1 simulated both random and systematic missingness with a sample of 1,630 Dutch adolescents, comparing the reliability and correlation matrices of nomination measures when nonparticipants were included and excluded as nominees. Study 2 began with a two-school sample that already included systematic nonparticipation (˜19% missingness among 599 7th grade nominees) and examined how findings would differ if students who had not provided nominations were excluded as nominees. Results showed that the impact of including versus excluding nonparticipants as nominees may vary depending on the type of missingness (Study 1) or in different peer groups (Study 2). Both studies demonstrated that the choice of including versus excluding nonparticipants can affect reliability and intercorrelations in peer nomination data, and provide some evidence that excluding nonparticipants as nominees may compromise peer nomination data quality.

We surveyed researchers in the health and exercise sciences to explore different areas and magnitudes of bias in researchers' decision making. Participants were presented with scenarios (testing a central hypothesis with p = 0.06 or p = 0.04) in a random order and surveyed about what they would do in each scenario. Participants showed significant bias in deciding to randomize additional participants when p = 0.06 (24.5%) compared to when p = 0.04 (6.5%), ?[superscript 2] = 19.86, odds ratio (OR) = 13.5. Based on this bias to randomize additional participants, we present statistical simulations showing the cumulative negative effect this bias has on the false positive rate for a field. While it is important for researchers to have flexibility in their data-processing decisions, there is a cost/benefit trade-off to experimenter degrees of freedom and it is important that these decisions be unbiased. These data highlight the importance of a priori analysis plans in research.

This study attempts to explore Israeli and American teachers' perceptions based on their ethical dilemmas in Jewish schools. A cross-national study was undertaken in Jewish schools, examining fifty teachers from Israel and fifty-one teachers from the United States. Designed with team-based simulations, this study revealed strong similarities between teachers' ethical dilemmas in both Israel and the United States. Several differences were found in the ethical guidelines participants created, based on contextual, school-related factors. This study suggests that ethical guidelines should be developed by teachers and that the use of team-based simulations is warranted to assist teachers in ethical decision making.

Simulations have received considerable attention as a tool to promote problem-solving skills, intense involvement, and high-order thinking among students. Whether semester-long exercises or a single-class session, simulations are often used in areas of conflict studies, diplomatic studies, trade disputes, electoral processes, and policy and legal debates. Asynchronous distance education instruction tends to rely on computer-mediated simulations. This article demonstrates a different approach, using a common desktop software program, Microsoft Excel, to create simulations suitable for in-class or individually distributed use that employs probabilistic scenarios and outcomes. By using spreadsheets as a simulation authoring tool, instructors can create and set the parameters for sophisticated simulations of political events and interactions. The article presents student reactions to the experiences of a simulation of trade negotiations between the United States and Japan during the 1980s that shows the process and nature of bilateral negotiations as well as the nature of "two-level games." (Contains 4 tables.)

Estimation problems associated with the correlated-trait correlated-method (CTCM) parameterization of a multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) matrix are widely documented: the model often fails to converge; even when convergence is achieved, one or more of the parameter estimates are outside the admissible parameter space. In this study, the authors explore the potential contributions of two factors to the occurrence of nonconvergence and inadmissible solutions: (a) the minimum number of indicators per factor and (b) the deviation of the MTMM matrix from the CTCM model beyond sampling variability. Analyses of two published occupational preference data sets involving six traits and five methods and a simulation study show that the probability of obtaining problematic solutions diminishes as the minimum number of indicators per factor increases. Also, isolating factors contributing to model misfit beyond sampling variability reduces the probability of obtaining problematic solutions by one half. The implications of these findings for choosing a measurement design that improves the probability of achieving a proper solution in the analysis of an MTMM matrix using the CTCM parameterization are discussed. (Contains 1 figure.)

The game SO LONG SUCKER was designed in the United States in 1964 with the aim of showing how potentially unethical behavior necessary for winning was inherent in the game's incentive structure. Sessions with East Asian participants, however, led to very different game dynamics in which collaborative rather than antagonistic behaviors occurred. This confirms that the course of a simulation game run is determined by more than its rules and roles. The participants' personalities, skills, personal histories, and preexisting relationships also play a role. Furthermore, the unwritten rules of social behavior that the participants have been socialized into, their culture, is of crucial importance. This article uses experiences with a mix of U.S. and Taiwanese participants to discuss the interaction of written and unwritten rules in determining game dynamics. The suitability for international classroom use of this game, and others, as a vehicle for drawing lessons about culture is argued. (Contains 3 figures.)

The ultimate goal of physician education is the application of knowledge and skills to patient care. The Maintenance of Certification (MOC) for Anesthesiologists program incorporates mannequin-based simulation to help realize this goal. Results from the first 2 years of experience suggest that 583 physician participants transferred knowledge and skills from their simulated experiences into real-world practice. Participants consistently found the experience educationally valuable and clinically relevant, and reported that it led to changes in practice. This first experience with mannequin-based simulation for MOC indicates that physicians accept this teaching modality, many with enthusiasm. Simulation education addresses many of the identified intentions of current continuing medical education (CME) and can help educators realize goals for educating physician-learners. (Contains 1 table.)

This article offers modelling opportunities in which the phenomena of the spread of disease, perception of changing mass, growth of technology, and dissemination of information can be described by one differential equation--the logistic differential equation. It presents two simulation activities for students to generate real data, as well as several other activities in which data is offered for the purpose of estimating parameters in the logistic differential equation model. (Contains 5 tables and 9 figures.)

Undergraduate students often struggle with understanding the theories of Bourdieu, but they are essential for understanding how power and privilege are reproduced in society. Revealing students' complicity in this system is a powerful teaching moment, but it is often difficult to make the lesson and advanced theory accessible without triggering students' defense mechanisms. Discussions of oppression often generate reactions of resistance, paralysis, and rage. This article describes a simulation designed to thwart student passivity while also being cognizant of pushing students too far emotionally. By having students adopt an identity during play and then analyze the results of their simulation, students were able to identify with structural oppression and learn Bourdieu's principles of cultural capital and reproduction.

Theories accounting for the development of analogical reasoning tend to emphasize either the centrality of relational knowledge accretion or changes in information processing capability. Simulations in LISA (Hummel & Holyoak, 1997, 2003), a neurally inspired computer model of analogical reasoning, allow us to explore how these factors may collaboratively contribute to the development of analogy in young children. Simulations explain systematic variations in United States and Hong Kong children's performance on analogies between familiar scenes (Richland, Morrison & Holyoak, 2006; Richland, Chang, Morrison & Au, 2010). Specifically, changes in inhibition levels in the model's working-memory system explain the developmental progression in US children's ability to handle increases in relational complexity and distraction from object similarity during analogical reasoning. In contrast, changes in how relations are represented in the model best capture cross-cultural differences in performance between children of the same ages (3-4 years) in the United States and Hong Kong. We use these results and simulations to argue that the development of analogical reasoning in children may best be conceptualized as an equilibrium between knowledge accretion and the maturation of information processing capability.

Despite the growing availability and popularity of simulations and other active teaching techniques, many instructors may be deterred from using simulations because of the potentially high costs involved. Instructors could spend a preponderance of their time and resources developing and executing simulations, but such an approach is not necessary. Instead of investing a great deal of time and effort into running a complex simulation, I recommend developing low-intensity simulations, using three possible strategies: (1) using one's own scholarly research to develop simulations, (2) using current events as the basis for simulations, and (3) using student research to create simulations. These strategies provide a starting place for the professor who has held off on trying simulations before and practical information for the professor who is accomplished in using active learning techniques and wants to take the next step by designing his or her own simulation. (Contains 2 figures and 13 notes.)

This article describes a simulation-based teaching approach that helps university students learn about negotiation in the context of environmental regulatory enforcement. The approach centers on negotiation of a penalty between government agencies and a fictitious corporation that has violated provisions of the U.S. Clean Water Act. The exercise teaches negotiation and environmental problem-solving skills by providing a realistic situation similar to ones encountered by environmental professionals. In comparison with traditional teaching methods, students in three successive courses reported an increased understanding of environmental enforcement procedures and environmental negotiation processes. The simulation can be modified for application in high schools and other educational settings. (Contains 7 tables and 10 footnotes.)

Intercultural simulations are instructional activities that engage and challenge participants with experiences integral to encounters between people of more than one cultural group. Simulations designed specifically to support intercultural encounters have been in use since the 1970s. This article examines the conceptual bases for intercultural simulation games, their history, contexts in which they are being or have been used, their efficacy, and the current situation for intercultural simulation games. The article concludes with a look at future directions, which will rely on technological advances and the creative work of promising young interculturalists. (Contains 1 figure.)

For those who must import oil to maintain their economies and quality of life, any disruption in the delivery of imported oil is a highly threatening prospect. How would U.S. policymakers react to such a threat in the contemporary era? We examine the potential policymaking roles and impacts of bureaucratic actors operating at the intersection of energy and security issues. To do so, we explore a comparative approach using an original simulation that envisions an energy supply "crisis" in the United States due to events in a hypothetical state somewhat inspired by Hugo Chavez's Venezuela. The simulation is run at three very different universities in three different courses, yet the results are surprisingly similar. Despite the obvious security implications of an oil shortage during a time of war, we find more engaged roles for those representing nonmilitary bureaucracies, a greater reliance on diplomatic and economic tools to respond to the crisis, less reliance on military policy instruments than might have been the case in the past, and a concern for tempering responses until more is known. (Contains 1 figure and 6 notes.)

Doctoral education in the United States had been scrutinized because of high-attrition rates reported as an average of 50 percent. Emerging from Lovitts (2001), this research examined students' attendance at Mock Orals (MO) and its relationship to their academic and social integration, cognitive maps, goals, rates of attrition, and retention in a doctoral program at a private metropolitan university. In contrast to the traditional dissertation model, the MO--activities designed to prepare doctoral students for their oral-defense presentations by engaging them in periodic bi-annual practice presentations. Data indicated that 87.5 percent of matriculated students had been graduated--a higher than the national 50 percent completion rate by more than one third. Conversely, 12.5 percent of the students were Non completers.

Effectively teaching college students about social class stratification is a difficult challenge. Explanations for this difficulty tend to focus on the students who often react with resistance, paralysis, or rage. Sociologists have been using games and simulations as alternative methods for several decades to teach about these sensitive subjects. This article uses the game "USA Stratified Monopoly" to demonstrate social class stratification, integrating issues of individualism and social change. "USA Stratified Monopoly" is a flexible, dynamic simulation game that effectively teaches students about social class stratification. This game successfully meets its learning objectives and can be a very powerful educational tool. It is well suited for classrooms with up to 60 students and can be played successfully in 50-minute class sessions. However, teachers must be aware of the emotional risks to students before using this game. "USA Stratified Monopoly" can bring out some intense emotions and reactions from students, and it is their responsibility to safely facilitate their learning experiences. (Contains 4 tables.)

The forms of words as they appear in text and speech are central to theories and models of lexical processing. Nonetheless, current methods for simulating their learning and representation fail to approach the scale and heterogeneity of real wordform lexicons. A connectionist architecture termed the "sequence encoder" is used to learn nearly 75,000 wordform representations through exposure to strings of stress-marked phonemes or letters. First, the mechanisms and efficacy of the sequence encoder are demonstrated and shown to overcome problems with traditional slot-based codes. Then, two large-scale simulations are reported that learned to represent lexicons of either phonological or orthographic wordforms. In doing so, the models learned the statistics of their lexicons as shown by better processing of well-formed pseudowords as opposed to ill-formed (scrambled) pseudowords, and by accounting for variance in well-formedness ratings. It is discussed how the sequence encoder may be integrated into broader models of lexical processing. (Contains 4 figures.)

Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MCFA) is a popular method for the examination of measurement invariance and specifically, factor invariance. Recent research has begun to focus on using MCFA to detect invariance for test items. MCFA requires certain parameters (e.g., factor loadings) to be constrained for model identification, which are assumed to be invariant across groups, and act as referent variables. When this invariance assumption is violated, location of the parameters that actually differ across groups becomes difficult. The factor ratio test and the stepwise partitioning procedure in combination have been suggested as methods to locate invariant referents, and appear to perform favorably with real data examples. However, the procedures have not been evaluated through simulations where the extent and magnitude of a lack of invariance is known. This simulation study examines these methods in terms of accuracy (i.e., true positive and false positive rates) of identifying invariant referent variables. (Contains 5 tables.)

Criteria had been proposed for assessing the severity of possible test security violations for computerized tests with high-stakes outcomes. However, these criteria resulted from theoretical derivations that assumed uniformly randomized item selection. This study investigated potential damage caused by organized item theft in computerized adaptive testing (CAT) for two realistic item selection methods, maximum item information and a-stratified with content blocking, using the randomized method as a baseline for comparison. Damage caused by organized item theft was evaluated by the number of compromised items each examinee could encounter and the impact of the compromised items on examinees' ability estimates. Severity of test security violation was assessed under self-organized and organized item theft simulation scenarios. Results indicated that though item theft could cause severe damage to CAT with either item selection method, the maximum item information method was more vulnerable to the organized item theft simulation than was the a-stratified method. (Contains 2 figures and 8 tables.)

This simulation probes what is known as the "foreign" teaching assistant problem. The "problem" can be found at large state universities in the United States where international graduate students are required to earn their scholarships by teaching undergraduate courses and arises because of a combination of issues, including the oral proficiency of the international teaching assistants (ITAs) and the xenophobic reactions to them by undergraduate students and their parents. The simulation probes the cross-cultural competence of all the stakeholders involved.