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The article examines the temporal dynamics of Second Amendment law, particularly the Supreme Court's shifting focus on different time periods. It explores how questions related to the Founding era and subsequent generations impact the interpretation of the Second Amendment. It includes considerations of the fixed-time doctrine versus dynamic Second Amendment rights.

The association between dry period length (DPL) and time to culling and pregnancy in the subsequent lactation may be important for the economically optimal length of the dry period. Therefore, this study aimed to (1) quantify the association between DPL and hazard of culling and pregnancy in the subsequent lactation; (2) develop continuous functions of DPL for the hazard ratios of culling and pregnancy; and (3) investigate the effect of a cause-specific hazards model and a subdistribution model to analyze competing events. The data used in this observational cohort study were from dairy herd improvement milk test lactation records from 40 states in the United States. After edits, there remained 1,108,515 records from 6,730 herds with the last days dry in 2014 or 2015. The records from 2 adjacent lactations (current, subsequent) were concatenated with the DPL of interest, 21 to 100 d, in between both lactations. We defined 8 DPL categories of 10 d each. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were used to show associations between DPL and time to culling or pregnancy for 3 lactation groups: lactation 1 and 2, lactation 2 and 3, and lactation 3 and greater. To control for confounding factors in Cox proportional models, we included 6 current lactation covariates and 3 time-dependent variables in the survival models. Hazard ratios of culling were estimated for 4 days in milk (DIM) categories from 1 to 450 DIM. Hazard ratios of pregnancy were estimated for 3 DIM categories from 61 to 300 DIM. Competing risk analysis of 8 disposal codes (i.e., farmer reported reasons) for culling and the culling event for pregnancy were conducted by a cause-specific hazards model and a subdistribution model. Hazard ratios were also estimated as quadratic polynomials of DPL. Compared with the reference DPL category of 51 to 60 d, hazard ratios of culling and pregnancy of the other 7 DPL categories ranged between 0.70 and 1.49, and 0.93 and 1.15, respectively. Short DPL were associated with lower risk of culling in the early lactation but not over the entire lactation. Short DPL were associated with greater hazard of pregnancy. Trends in hazard ratios over the ranges of the 8 DPL categories were not always consistent. Competing risk analysis with both models provided little differences in hazard ratios of culling and pregnancy. In conclusion, variations in DPL were associated with meaningful differences in the hazard ratios for culling and pregnancy and minor differences in the relative frequency of disposal codes. Subdistribution hazards models produced hazard ratios similar to cause-specific hazard models. The quadratic polynomials may be useful for decision support on customization of DPL for individual cows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A robust literature has investigated homicide trends in the United States since 1950. The prevalence of homicide in the country almost doubled in the 1960s, remained high until the 1990s and then declined precipitously. Surprisingly, Canada displayed the same trend. We decompose the age, period and cohort effects on the homicide trends of the United States and Canada since 1950, exploring shared effects in light of these countries' historical and policy differences over the past seven decades. Our study reveals remarkably similar trends and effects in Canada as those previously documented for the United States, despite diverging approaches to criminal justice and to the use of incarceration since the 1950s. We explore these findings and expand on their implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the key importance of soil moisture-evapotranspiration (ET) coupling in the climate system, limited availability of soil moisture and ET observations poses a major impediment for investigation of this coupling regarding spatiotemporal characteristics and potential modifications under climate change. To better understand and quantify soil moisture-ET coupling and relevant processes, this study takes advantage of in situ soil moisture observations from the U.S. Climate Reference Network (USCRN) for the time period of 2010-17 and a satellite-derived version of the evapotranspiration stress index (ESI), which represents anomalies in a normalized ratio of actual to reference ET. The analyses reveal strong seasonality and regional characteristics of the ESI-land surface interactions across the United States, with the strongest control of soil moisture on the ESI found in the southern Great Plains during spring, and in the north-central United States, the northern Great Plains, and the Pacific Northwest during summer. In drier climate regions such as the northern Great Plains and north-central United States, soil moisture control on the ESI is confined to surface soil layers, with subsurface soil moisture passively responding to changes in the ESI. The soil moisture-ESI interaction is more uniform between surface and subsurface soils in wetter regions with higher vegetation cover. These results provide a benchmark for simulation of soil moisture-ET coupling and are useful for projection of associated climate processes in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Guidelines' Evidence Blocks has the broadest scope of the several oncology value assessment frameworks. The Evidence Blocks includes the Affordability criterion, which reflects the financial cost of each treatment on a 1-5 scale. The accuracy of Affordability is unknown.Methods: We calculated Medicare costs for all first-line and maintenance treatments for the 30 cancers with the highest incidence in the USA that had published NCCN Evidence Blocks as of 31 December 2018. We assessed the accuracy and consistency of Affordability across different treatments and cancer types. Among different treatments for the same indication, we determined the frequency with which the Affordability assessment was consistent with calculated treatment costs.Results: There were a total of 1386 treatments in our sample. Lower Affordability scores were associated with higher costs. There was significant variation in cost at each level of Affordability; for treatments with Affordability = 1 (very expensive), costs ranged from $US4551 to $US43,794 per month for treatments administered over an undefined time period and from $US2865 to $US500,982 per course of therapy for treatments administered over a defined time period. Among treatments for the same indication, Affordability was discrepant with calculated treatment costs in 7.9% of pairwise comparisons, identifying the higher-cost treatment as being more affordable. Discrepancies were reduced when we reassigned Affordability scores based on calculated treatment costs.Conclusions: Evidence Blocks Affordability generally correlated with treatment costs but contained discrepancies, which may limit its usefulness to clinicians in comparing costs. This study suggests that the Affordability score may be improved by indexing more directly to specified dollar value thresholds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current state of pediatric research in Hawai'i was analyzed using bibliometric methods. The Web of Science bibliometric database was used to retrieve 989 Hawai'i records, which were compared with 264 064 records from the United States (US). Hawai'i was compared to the country as a whole in terms of total output of research, article types, top journals, co-authorship, and subject areas. The research was also analyzed in 2 time periods, 1980-1999 and 2000-2019. It was found that the total Hawai'i pediatric research output has not kept pace with the US output. However, it was found that Hawai'i had a greater share of Asia-Pacific co-authorship. Subspecialty areas of study also differed between Hawai'i and the US, and have changed over time from a predominance of infectious diseases and immunology research to a focus on emergency medicine and orthopedics. Neonatology research has increased locally as it has nationally. Hawai'i authors tend to publish a greater percentage of full-length original research articles in the top pediatric journals compared to US authors as a whole. The set of institutions publishing pediatric research in Hawai'i has diversified over time. This analysis of the pediatric research in Hawai'i can be used by researchers, funders, and policy makers to direct future research efforts to improve the health of children in Hawai'i. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The occurrence of regional temperature extremes on weekly to seasonal time scales has been a common climate impact in recent decades. Both instances of extreme warmth and extreme cold have been documented and analysed in the literature. While these events have most often been analysed independently, in this study, the transition between temperature extremes is examined using station data. Five measures of extreme temperature change are examined. At stations across the United States, there has been a significant decrease in the temperature difference between the warmest and coldest percentile observed within each year based on 7‐, 30‐ and 90‐day temperature averages during both the 1900–2017 and 1950–2017 periods. The maximum difference between percentiles associated with adjacent 7‐, 30‐ and 90‐day periods in each year has also declined significantly. At the same time, the interval between the highest and lowest annual percentile occurrence has lengthened. On a decadal basis, the frequency of shifts from the sub‐5th to over‐95th temperature percentiles has also declined through time, while the average time period between temperature occurrences in opposite tails of the distribution has increased. In general, these results are very consistent across the United States, although some regional‐ and duration‐dependent differences are noted. For many of the extreme temperature metrics, a high level of field significance is obtained in the Southwest, Great Plains and Midwest regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given that the volume of carbon emissions in the US is a significant share of the global greenhouse gas emissions, some salient factors are being currently examined so as to reverse the threat to global environmental sustainability. To this regard, the current study investigates the co-movement and long-term and short-term causal relationship between CO2 emission (a proxy for environmental quality) and renewable consumption, immigration, and healthcare by using the wavelet coherence approach which primarily provides information on dynamic correlations over time and for different time scales. The coherence approach allows the one-dimensional time data into the bi-dimensional time-frequency sphere between the variables. In addition to investigating the causal relationship between CO2 and renewable consumption, immigration, and healthcare, this study also employs gradual-shift causality and Toda-Yamamoto causality tests. With this, the study found a high variation for CO2 emission in the US at 8 scales (8 quarters) from 1999 to 2008. Additionally, there is significant feedback causality between CO2 emission and renewable consumption at different scales while a positive correlation between the variables is observed in the short run. Similarly, the result reveals that immigration significantly causes CO2 emission in the US from 2008 to 2010 and a two-way causality is detected between CO2 emission and healthcare at different frequencies and time period. Moreover, the Toda-Yamamoto causality and gradual-shift causality tests provide supportive evidence to the outcomes of the wavelet coherence–based causality test in this study. Overall, the investigation offers significant policy directive especially toward addressing the potential adverse effects from the country's immigration and healthcare amendments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mussel distributions are often described as clumped or patchy. However, few surveys of mussel populations have been designed to quantify these spatial patterns. We used indicators of spatial autocorrelation to quantify spatial patterns of adult and juvenile (≤5 y old) freshwater mussels at local (fine) spatial scales (i.e., <300 m) within 14 sites along ~700 km of the Upper Mississippi River, USA. Juveniles were patchily distributed in 43% of the sites, whereas adults were patchily distributed in 50% of the sites. Juveniles and adults displayed the same spatial pattern in 64% of the sites. Hotspots, areas with locally-high densities, for adults overlapped with juvenile hotspots at ½ of the sites, suggesting that the spatial and temporal mechanisms that structure mussel distributions persist over long periods of time. A comparison of our results with a similar study focused at a coarser spatial scale suggests that patchiness in mussel distributions can occur at multiple scales and that the detection of such patchiness is a function of sampling extent and spatial grain. Mussels play an important ecological role in rivers, so information on their spatial patterns aids our understanding of the spatial structure and function of riverine ecosystems as well as the ecological consequences of their population declines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Major changes to the operation of local newsrooms--ownership restructuring, layoffs, and a reorientation away from print advertising--have become commonplace in the last few decades. However, there have been few systematic attempts to characterize the impact of these changes on the types of reporting that local newsrooms produce. In this paper, we propose a method to measure the investigative content of news articles based on article text and influence on subsequent articles. We use our method to examine over-time and cross-sectional patterns in news production by local newspapers in the United States over the past decade. We find surprising stability in the quantity of investigative articles produced over most of the time period examined, but a notable decline in the last 2 y of the decade, corresponding to a recent wave of newsroom layoffs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apex predators can influence ecosystems through density and behaviorally mediated effects on herbivores and mesopredators. In many parts of the world, apex predators live in, or are returning to, landscapes that have been modified by people; so, it is important to understand their ecological role in anthropogenic landscapes. We used motion-activated game cameras to compare the activity patterns of humans and 2 mesopredators, coyotes (Canis latrans) and bobcats (Lynx rufus), in areas with and without an apex predator, the gray wolf (Canis lupus), in a multiuse landscape of the northwestern United States. In areas with wolves, there was a significant increase in temporal niche overlap between the mesopredators owing to higher levels of coyote activity at all time periods of the day. Temporal overlap between mesopredators and humans also increased significantly in the presence of wolves. Coyotes exposed to wolves increased their activity during dawn, day, and dusk hours. The increase in coyote activity was greatest during the day, when wolves were least active. The direction of change in bobcat activity in areas with wolves was opposite to coyotes, suggesting a behaviorally mediated cascade between wolves, coyotes, and bobcats, although these findings would need to be confirmed with further research. Our findings suggest that mesopredators in human-dominated systems may perceive humans as less dangerous than apex predators, that humans may be more likely to encounter mesopredators in areas occupied by top predators, and that behaviorally mediated effects of apex predators on mesopredators persist in human-dominated landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Though recent literature highlights widespread bee declines, detailed information on local communities and individual species remains scarce. In order to accurately direct conservation initiatives and to evaluate the status of wild bees, regional long‐term data on these populations are critical.This study analysed 119 wild bee species within New Hampshire, USA, over 125 years (1891–2016) using museum data. Examining pollinator communities across regional spatial scales has the power to highlight small‐scale changes that go undetected in larger investigations. In the light of unknown effects of introduced species and cumulative range expansions of exotic taxa, monitoring wild communities closely and extensively over time is becoming increasingly important.The composition of the New Hampshire wild bee community has changed between the historical and contemporary time periods with 14 species found to be statistically significantly declining and eight species found to be statistically significantly increasing. Over half of the species found to be in statistically significant decline experienced a significant elevational or latitudinal range shift, many are regionally important crop pollinators, and all are native New Hampshire taxa.Guild affiliations were not found to be indicators of change, suggesting that the requirements and behaviour of individual species must be examined in order to evaluate the current and future stability of the wild bee community. Many of these species occur in varied landscapes, climates, and habitats; thus, monitoring changes at regional scales is critical to informing conservation recommendations broadly and focusing future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the spatiotemporal variability associated with 5-/10-day heavy precipitation amounts for 48 high-quality and long-duration (1900–2018) stations in Illinois. The top five seasonal and annual heavy precipitation amounts for each duration were determined and examined for each station. Annual and seasonal spatial patterns generally showed a trend of decreasing precipitation amounts as one moved northward through Illinois. Spatial distributions of the top seasonal amounts exhibited the highest values in boreal spring and summer, with the lowest values during winter. Temporal analysis of the top five 5- and 10-day amounts from 1900 to 2018 indicated an increasing trend with a higher frequencies in the 2000–18 period for spring, summer, winter, and annual time periods (statistically significant for spring and annual). No trend was found in autumn heavy precipitation occurrence. In addition, heavy precipitation events were examined in the context of the background atmospheric environment using the Twentieth Century Reanalysis. Event-averaged precipitable water values were shown to scale linearly with total precipitation in the winter season. Low-level circulation fields indicate that the most widespread heavy rain episodes occur when a synoptic anticyclone is positioned off the coast of the eastern United States. Results from this study suggest that design values used for hydrologic structures should be reevaluated given recent observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim/purpose - The key aim of the paper is to examine the diffusion of the sustainable investing Exchange-Traded Funds (ETFs) on the European and US ETFs markets, with the special focus on the market shares of sustainable investing and conventional funds. Design/methodology/approach - The model of diffusion of innovation (logistic growth model) is applied. Monthly data on the assets of ETFs in the time period of 2006-2017 are used. Findings - Increasing assets of sustainable investing ETFs were identified in both examined regions. The average value of assets was higher in the United States, but the European market became larger in the late 2017. Exclusively for Europe, the diffusion of sustainable investing ETFs was confirmed for the entire analysed time period as the market share of this category was increasing in relation to the conventional funds. In the United States, the diffusion was short-lived and took place in the time period 2006-2008. Research implications/limitations - Applied diffusion models assume an S-shaped trajectory of the innovation's diffusion and the estimations are sensitive to historical data. Originality/value/contribution - It is the first study to apply the methodological framework of innovation diffusion for the examination of the sustainable financial products. It addresses an issue of switching between sustainable investing and conventional financial products that has not been examined previously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed and evaluated a preliminary scintillating fiber-based real-time dose monitoring system (SRDMS) for brachytherapy. The SRDMS consisted of a detector section with 10 scintillating fibers (BCF-12, Saint Gobain Inc., S.A. France) inserted into a long barrel cylinder and a readout system comprising a photo-multiplier tube (PMT H12428-203 MOD, Hamamatsu Photonics, Shizuoka, Japan) and National Instrument Measurement & Automation Explorer (NI MAX, National Instruments, TX, USA). Basic system performance was estimated by measuring the dwell position and time for various patterns of source motion. Signal output response with data sampling, linearity, and reproducibility was also evaluated. In addition, dwell position and time measurement via the SRDMS were compared across three treatment plans, which were applied to a silicone-based human phantom to evaluate the system's response to more complex and realistic situations. The difference between the measured source dwell position and plan was -0.52 ± 0.53 mm. The difference between the measured dwell time and plan was 7 ± 5 ms. For signal output verification, the signal-to-SD ratio was less than 1.5%. The signal output linearity was maintained at -0.43 ± 0.50%, and reproducibility was 1.35 ± 1.44%. In this study, we demonstrated that the SRDMS can accurately detect relative dwell positions and dwell times. In further studies, we plan to verify the accuracy of relative source strength, and update the SRDMS with real-time monitoring. The SRDMS could be used for real-time dose monitoring during brachytherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey of sea turtle rehabilitation facilities in the United States revealed that 34 facilities released 11,417 sea turtles through 2016. The number of turtles released per time period increased over time, with 80% of releases occurring between 2007 and 2016, 15% between 1997 and 2006, and 5% prior to 1997. Twenty facilities reported a total of 314 first re-encounters and 6 second re-encounters of turtles that had been previously released, including 12 turtles encountered while successfully nesting. Results revealed substantial efforts to rehabilitate sea turtles in the United States, with some rehabilitated turtles surviving for extended periods after release, but with the fate of most remaining unknown. Greater efforts to determine the long-term outcome for a larger proportion of rehabilitation cases are warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Design and optimization of many network applications, services, protocols, and routing protocols can be improved with delay-related measurement for a better operation over the Internet. Many experimental delay measurements have been performed on predetermined end-to-end connections with a less number of hosts compared to our study. This study aims to investigate up-to-date round-trip delay time measurement results over the Internet through pinging random IPv4 addresses from three vantage points located in the United States, Turkey, and Japan. Considering different time periods in a day and in consecutive 5 years, we performed a large-scale round-trip delay time analysis study by sending more than 300 million ICMP requests to randomly chosen IPv4 addresses. Approximately, 55 million unique Internet hosts replied to ICMP requests and were evaluated for the analysis. The results show that 90% of IP hosts accomplish their ICMP communication in less than 0.4 s. Mostly the propagation time on backbone links constitutes the larger part of total round-trip delay time. Distribution fitting test results demonstrate that RTTs of distributed hosts around the world could be modeled with multimodal distribution functions. Wakeby distribution function gives best results for modeling RTTs with two different modes according to the Kolmogorov-Simirnov test statistics. Our study also gives perspective about how packet delay values would be, when a message is broadcasted all over the world. Another significant finding is that it gives a point of view where to locate servers to provide a fast Internet service all over the world via Internet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wintering period is often a limiting time for waterfowl. To understand the behavioral dynamics of Atlantic brant Branta bernicla hrota wintering along coastal New Jersey, USA, we conducted observations across the full 24-h diel period in an effort to construct an accurate time-budget model for the wintering population. In most behavioral studies, it is only possible to collect diurnal and crepuscular behavior data, forcing the assumption that these data are representative of nocturnal behavior in order to model the full 24-h diel period. We collected behavior data in 5,902 instantaneous observational scans across 4 time periods (morning crepuscular, diurnal, evening crepuscular, and nocturnal) from the third week in October to the third week in February 2009–2010 and 2010–2011. Brant primarily allocated time toward swimming (43.5%), feeding (26.4%), resting (15.4%), and flying (7.7%); these proportions differed significantly across times of day. Brant exhibited decreased flight (4.8% vs. 9.3%) and feeding (22.3% vs. 29.6%) and increased resting behavior (24.4% vs. 10.5%) nocturnally compared with diurnal periods. We further modeled explanatory environmental variables, hunting effects (open vs. closed seasons, locations open vs. closed to hunting), and time of day (diurnal and nocturnal only) on wintering behaviors. Feeding, resting, and swimming behavior presence were most influenced by a predictive model of (Hunt Season × Hunt Location × Period) + (Tide × Period). Flight behavior presence were most influenced by a predictive model of (Hunt Season × Hunt Location × Period) + (Tide × Temperature). There is an interactive effect of hunting pressure and period of day on observed activity; therefore, our results demonstrate that not accounting for nocturnal variation in behavior can lead to biases when extrapolating to energy expenditure models. Additionally, hunting areas proved to be nocturnally valuable because these areas contain valuable energy resources that may be unavailable diurnally, and our observations show that brant will shift their activities around hunting pressures to make use of these areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nelson et al. (2015) presented design principles for foundations on expansive soils. The design principles consider free-field heave throughout the design life of a structure as the basis for foundation design. The design principles also consider water migration in the vadose zone, and the time required for subsoil wetting over the design life of the structure. This paper presents a method to validate th foundation design method presented in Nelson et al. (2015). The validation was performed using detailed long-term data obtained on a building constructed on expansive soils at the Denver International Airport, Denver, Colorado, USA. Water migration in the vadose zone and heave of floor slabs and drilled pier foundations were monitored over the time period from 2000 to 2016 and extended to a 25 year period (1991 - 2016) beginning at the end of construction. Water content profiles were modeled using VADOSE/W software, and heave of slabs and piers were computed using the design method presented in Nelson et al. (2015). The depth of wetting and changes in water content were used to compute heave according to the design method. Calculated heave was compared to the survey data. It was shown that the design method was capable of predicting heave to within 30 percent of the measured heave over a 25-year period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To assess the correlation between perception of the learning environment and the approach to learning adopted by anesthesiology residents throughout training in an academic institution in the United States. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study involving forty-one anesthesiology residents who completed electronic forms of the Revised Two-Factor Study Process Questionnaire to assess learning approaches, and the Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measure questionnaire to assess learning environment. Convenience sampling was used with the current anesthesiology residents. Learning approaches were analyzed with a multiple regression model for correlation between total score, domains, and training level. Analysis of variance was used to assess differences in perception of the learning environment based on training level. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the correlation between domains of learning the environment and approaches questionnaires. Cronbach a was used to evaluate the internal consistency of responses within each domain of both questionnaires. Results: Forty-one residents completed the questionnaires. Cronbach a varied between 0.604 and 0.76 among the domains in the Study Process Questionnaire and was greater than 0.60 for the Dundee questionnaire. There was a moderate correlation between total deep approach scores and the total subjective perception of teachers scores (R2= - 0.507, p <0.01). There was no significant association between specific domains of Dundee and study process questionnaires and resident year of training. Conclusions: The learning approaches adopted by anesthesiology residents and the perception of the educational environment are not correlated with years of training. The DREEM and R-SPQ-2F questionnaires should not be recommended for evaluation of anesthesiology residents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Norovirus is a substantial burden on the U.S. We compared norovirus outbreaks before and during COVID-19. There were fewer norovirus outbreaks during COVID-19 compared to a similar time period in 2019 (326 versus 638, P<0.001). Conclusion. COVID-19 public health interventions may be considered to decrease the burden of norovirus. This demonstrates the ability of more restrictive interventions to decrease other outbreaks of known or emerging viruses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Designed to investigate the trends, patterns and rigors of research studies examining global public relations, this study conducted a content analysis of published articles in public relations journals as well as other communication journals between 2001 and 2014. During this time span, a total of 163 articles examined topics related to global public relations. Information including journal name, publication year, country examined, authorship, theoretical application, method approach, and future research direction was recorded for each article. Given the steady increase in the number of articles addressing global public relations during the timeframe examined, the field should shift from description to theorization and establish theories specific to global public relations with methodological diversification. The United States was the nation of most frequent focus in the articles, followed by China, the United Kingdom, and South Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A consensus has long been established that adherents of the Critical Legal School (and to a lesser extent, Legal Realism) exaggerated their claims of law’s indeterminacy. This paper however, attempts to resurrect the indeterminacy debate by articulating, developing and elevating a particular strand of it; namely, the use of unrestrained time frames in factual construction. This claims that factual construction in adjudication is, in part, contingent on the time frames adopted—though absent some metaprinciple on whether to adopt broad or narrow time frames—indeterminacy rears its head. The paper primarily argues that time frame indeterminacy is important as it actually underwrites the attacks levelled by both Critical Legal Studies (CLS) and American Legal Realism (ALR) on legal liberalism. It nourishes ALR critiques by enriching the strict and loose articulations of precedent authored by Karl Llewellyn, and also connects some of the definitive themes that underline the CLS literature, specifically the rules-standards and free will-determinism contradictions in legal liberal discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A major challenge in effective caseflow management in courts is the low level of acceptance concerning the established timeframes and only modest compliance toward them. This article introduces a practical tool for improving caseflow management, called the “timeframe alarm system.” The tool has been designed to improve managerial and work planning actions in courts and to help bring timeframes as a more integral part of everyday court operations. The tool is designed in an improvement project in a Finnish court. The aim of the project has been to combine the expertise of judiciary and operations management scholars. The article introduces the main features of the tool and the tool design process, as well as analysis concerning the functionality and usability of the tool. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: What is it about the Moon that captures the fancy of humankind? A silvery disk hanging in the night sky, it conjures up images of romance and magic. It has been counted upon to foreshadow important events, both of good and ill, and its phases for eons served humanity as its most accurate measure of time. This paper discusses the Moon as a target for human exploration and eventual settlement. This paper will explore the more than 50-year efforts to reach the Moon, succeeding with space probes and humans in Project Apollo in the 1960s and early 1970s. It will then discuss the rationales for spaceflight, suggesting that human space exploration is one of the least compelling of all that might be offered. The paper will then discuss efforts to make the Moon a second home, including post-Apollo planning, the Space Exploration Initiative, and problems and opportunities in the 2004 Vision for Space Exploration, and cancellation of that program in 2010. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Stochastic serial correlations are often ignored in the statistical uncertainty (Type A) analysis of measurement values. For repeated measurements, the standard deviation of the mean is often used to specify Type-A uncertainty, but it is frequently underestimated by assuming that it is given by the standard deviation divided by the square root of the number of measurements. Methods of time-series analysis such as the Allan variance (Avar) formalism give realistic estimates of Type-A uncertainty, but they require equal time intervals between successive measurements. This requirement is difficult to satisfy in comparisons of Josephson voltage standards (JVSs) because of the instability of the voltage steps and the small number of repeated measurements. A JVS comparison was made using a completely automatic compact JVS. The time intervals were uneven; thus, we studied the effect of their irregularity on the Avar by simulating data having the same noise model and uneven time intervals as the measured data. We found that, for this JVS comparison, the Avar is only slightly affected by uneven intervals. The noise was found to be a mixture of white and 1/f noise. The latter limits the Allan deviation to 0.64 nV after 14.3 h of measurement. The method of simulating data this way should be applicable to other complex measurement situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) and a Belgian national survey using weekly diaries indicate that, when asked to estimate their number of work hours, employed respondents tend to overestimate their work hours by 5 -- 10 percent in relation to the work hours they report in their time diaries; most of the overestimation is accounted for by respondents who estimate longer work hours [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Absolute bang time measurements with the gas Cherenkov detector (GCD) and gamma reaction history (GRH) diagnostic have been performed to high precision at the OMEGA laser facility at the University of Rochester with bang time values for the two diagnostics agreeing to within 5 ps on average. X-ray timing measurements of laser-target coupling were used to calibrate a facility-generated laser timing fiducial with rms spreads in the measured coupling times of 9 ps for both GCD and GRH. Increased fusion yields at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) will allow for improved measurement precision with the GRH easily exceeding NIF system design requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) successfully completed its first inertial confinement fusion (ICF) campaign in 2009. A neutron time-of-flight (nTOF) system was part of the nuclear diagnostics used in this campaign. The nTOF technique has been used for decades on ICF facilities to infer the ion temperature of hot deuterium (D2) and deuterium-tritium (DT) plasmas based on the temporal Doppler broadening of the primary neutron peak. Once calibrated for absolute neutron sensitivity, the nTOF detectors can be used to measure the yield with high accuracy. The NIF nTOF system is designed to measure neutron yield and ion temperature over 11 orders of magnitude (from 108 to 1019), neutron bang time in DT implosions between 1012 and 1016, and to infer areal density for DT yields above 1012. During the 2009 campaign, the three most sensitive neutron time-of-flight detectors were installed and used to measure the primary neutron yield and ion temperature from 25 high-convergence implosions using D2 fuel. The OMEGA yield calibration of these detectors was successfully transferred to the NIF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to show the way in which State Transportation Agencies throughout the USA are under increasing pressure to preserve and expand the nation's roadway infrastructure in the shortest possible time with only a finite pool of resources with which to meet a state's transportation needs. With this in mind, a rapid construction methods decision-making system was developed, to be used during the preliminary and conceptual design stage of a roadway project. Design/methodology/approach - The research completed an extensive literature review and examined case studies to identify rapid construction methods and summarize- valuable lessons learned. Designed for use by the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet, the research developed a series of conceptual road user cost (RUC) tables that reflect different socioeconomic conditions by varying the value of time based on average hourly per capita income and wages for different counties in Kentucky. Findings - The case studies identified that the most effective mean for State Transportation Agencies to accelerate construction is through their construction contracts. Furthermore, determining - RUC as outlined in the research way simplifies the method of calculating RUC by using fewer variables than would typically be available during the preliminary and conceptual design stage. Research limitations/implications - The proposed decision-making model is designed for State Transportation Agencies who are involved in the scenarios of determining the value of accelerating construction in both an urban and rural environments. Practical implications - The project's intent in determining conceptual road user costs is to support a decision-making process to identify the need and type of rapid construction methods for any given project. - Originality/value - ,A specific decision-making process is proposed, and it uses the ratios of the Conceptual Road User Cost to the Maximum Allowable Road User Cost and a set of additional criteria based on project features to recommend a selection of rapid construction methods for a given highway project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emissions of polychlorinated dibenzodioxin and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDD/F) from simulated grassland and forest fires were quantitatively sampled to derive emission factors in support of PCDD/F inventory development. Grasses from Kentucky and Minnesota; forest shrubs from California and Florida; and pine forest biomass from the Piedmont region of North Carolina, western North Carolina, and coastal Oregon were collected and tested in a burn facility that mimicked a prescribed fire in the natural environment scenario. Ambient sampling methods for PCDD/F were variously accompanied by real-time measurements of major aromatic species, including benzene, toluene, naphthalene, and styrene. Emission factors in mass of toxic equivalent (TEQ) of PCDD/F per kg of carbon burned (kgCb) for the two grasses averaged 0.32ng TEQ/kgCb. Burn tests (n =27) on forest biomass from the five sources show PCDD/F emission factors ranging from 0.3 to 26.3ng TEQ/kgCb, with a mean and median of 5.8 and 3.3ng TEQ/kgCb, respectively. Variation of the forest green/brown needle content, sample size, burn scenario, and facility ventilation rate showed no consistent effects on PCDD/F emissions. For forest burns, 30–35% of the PCDD and 50-55% of the PCDF emissions occurred during the flaming period from 0 to 5min, while the highest emission factors (per mass of carbon burned) were recorded during the smoldering period from 5 to 60min. Emissions of PCDD/F exceeded those present in the raw biomass by a factor of four, confirming PCDD/F formation from combustion rather than from simple surface volatilization. The majority of the PCDD/F partitions to the emissions rather than the ash. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A wipe sample transport was designed and built to meet two objectives: to simplify collection, storage, and transport of cotton swab wipe samples and to provide a sample train of 72 wipe samples nearly ready for analysis when the swabs reach the laboratory. The cotton swabs are mounted on an Al rod that is the sample support for an autosampler used to perform direct analysis in real time (DART1)/orthogonal acceleration, time-of-flight mass spectrometry (oa-TOFMS) analyses. The goal is for one analyst to analyze 1000 wipe samples mounted on 14 Al rods in one 8-h shift. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on various clocks and frequency measurement systems at the U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO). The clock ensemble at the USNO includes cesium clocks and cavity-tuned hydrogen maser clocks, which are located in two Washington, D.C. buildings and at the USNO Alternate Master Clock (AMC) in Colorado. The Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is generated by the Master Clock at the USNO. Several measures have been taken to ensure the accuracy and stability of the USNO's clocks. The clocks are protected by an electrical power system, and the buildings, which house the clocks, have redundant environmental controls. It is stated that the USNO serves the navigational needs of GPS and the time and frequency requirements of other users.

The article focuses on the construction of a Time Zone Calculator through a series of physical models to help students in the U.S. understand the cyclical nature of time. The materials required for the activity include an ordinary globe of the Earth with the longitude lines marked in 15-degree increments, sheets of tagboard or cardstock, a pencil, a pencil compass, an atlas, and a tape. In the activity, students would observe the change of time on the Earth relative to the Earth's rotation and the organization and standardization of time zones.

Estimates of the travel times between the elements of a bottom hydrophone array can be extracted from the time-averaged ambient noise cross-correlation function (NCF). This is confirmed using 11-min-long data blocks of ambient noise recordings that were collected in May 1995 near the southern California coast at an average depth of 21 m in the 150-700 Hz frequency range. Coherent horizontal wavefronts emerging from the time derivative of the NCF are obtained across the array's aperture and are related to the direct arrival time of the time-domain Green's function (TDGF). These coherent wavefronts are used for array element self-localization (AESL) and array element self-synchronization (AESS). The estimated array element locations are used to beamform on a towed source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the history of time-measurement and time-management in the U.S. Definition of time-binding; Concept of time according to Isaac Newton; Time-related values manifested by the use of railroads and the telegraph.

The volume and mass of information machines should essentially be zero. Toward this ultimate target, efforts in electronics, machinery, physics and chemistry have all contributed to the advancement of microsystem technology. These efforts will continue to increase. At the same time, while computer development continues down the traditional path of human-operated machines, we are seeing the development of a so-called 'pervasive computer' world where computers run without human operators. This paper outlines the technology related to these two trends, then introduces a 'nature interfacer' - a new information terminal concept that combines the movement toward smaller machines with the trend toward unmanned operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the time-varying causality between energy consumption (renewable and non-renewable) by the U.S. energy sectors and real GDP covering the period 1973:Q1-2018:Q4. Unlike previous literature, this study does not only use a conventional causality technique, but also incorporates a time-varying causality approach to see whether the relationship between renewable and non-renewable energy consumption by sector and real GDP changes over the study period. The results obtained from the Toda-Yamamoto approach reveal a causality relationship in the case of industrial and transportation sectors. The results from the time-varying causality technique, however, indicate that the causality relationship is detected for all sectors over different time periods. This study therefore addresses the shortcomings of the conventional causality test, which emphasizes the importance of time-varying in determining the underlining relationship. Given the energy-GDP causality, it is worth noting that the validity of a causality hypothesis proposed by a conventional method does not necessarily dominate the whole sample period. Policy implications are discussed. • Causality between energy use and real output is examined in the US. • Energy use is proxied by renewable and non-renewable energy consumption by sector. • The time-varying framework matters in determining the causality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a reprint of the article "John Quincy Adams' role in American astronomy," by John E. Ventre, which appeared in the blog SpaceWatchtower. It discusses the contributions of former U.S. President John Quincy Adams to establish observatories in the country and cultivate the American astronomy. It also mentions that Quincy suggested the importance of observatories for accurate determination of time and calibration of navy's chronometers.

Presents research which examined four Missouri stalagmites. Records of oxygen and carbon isotopic changes; Climate and vegetation history; Thorium-230 dating; Oscillation of the midcontinental climate; Highest temperatures; Peak vegetation; Cooling climate; Forestation; Building of the global ice sheets.

Reports on the age and origin of Carlsbad Cavern and related caves from 40Ar/39Ar of alunite. The significance of the increase in the age of alunite and the correlation with cave elevations; The suggestion that 40Ar/39Ar dating studies of the hypogene caves have the potential to help resolve late Cenozoic climatic, speleologic and tectonic questions.

The consequences of using alternative measures of time and achievement are examined in an observational study of 18 elementary school classes. Of the four measures of time used—scheduled time, actual instructional time, engaged time and engaged rate—the engagement measures produced the more consequential effects of time for learning. Nonetheless, measures of allocated time are still important because they provide the constraints within which the results for engagement time must be interpreted. Mathematics achievement, measured as standardized and as chapter specific tests, was not consistently related to the time measures. This paper examines the extent to which the choice of the same model linking time and learning for all students was implicated in these inconsistent results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Reaction time is a determining factor for performance in many spores. Long-term studies have shown that reaction time can be shortened by training. The aim of this study was to compare the visual and auditory reaction times of athletes and sedentary individuals with different somatotypes. Methods: The study was started after the approval of Malatya Clinical Research Ethics Committee. 73 athletes, 75 sedentary, 148 volunteers were included. Age, gender, height, weight and anthropometric measurements of the subjects were recorded. Somatotype was determined according to Heath-Carter method. Visual (VRT) and auditory (ART) reaction time measurements of the subjects in the study were made with Hubbard Scientific Reaction Timer (Model: 6027, USA) Results: Based on the somatotype analysis, 6 different somatotypes (balanced ectomorph, balanced mesomorph, ectomorphic mesomorph, endomorphic mesomorph, mesomorphendomorph, mesomorphic endomorph) were found in the athletes and the sedantary participants. In terms of VRT and ART scores of athletes and sedentary individuals in terms of each somatotype, there was statistically significant difference in balanced ectomorph somatotype character in VRT score. In endomorphic mesomorph somatotype characteristics, there was statistically significant difference in both VRT and ART scores (p<0.05). Conclusion: The results of our study are interesting in terms of being a new subject for scientists working in this field. This study is one of the few studies that correlates somatotype character analysis which is frequently used in sports sciences with reaction time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]