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Thousands of youth are sexually trafficked each year in the United States. In order to address this concern, anti-trafficking advocates often emphasize the importance of uniform screening protocols to assist with the identification of survivors. Unfortunately, an oft-overlooked component of sex trafficking identification is what to do once a victim has been identified, and how to best meet survivors' complex needs. In this article, the authors provide social work practitioners and other advocates with best practice guidelines for how to design and evaluate anti-sex trafficking advocacy programs for children and youth. These guidelines include considerations related to direct services with clients, community partnerships, and organizational capacity, as well as recommendations for how to begin and then evaluate programming. Regardless of the form selected for the program, all anti-sex trafficking programs should be designed to provide effective, client-centered follow-up and advocacy once a positive identification is made in the community. The recommendations included in this paper are based upon extant literature, the authors' practice experience with survivors, and insights from anti-sex trafficking program evaluations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine the associations between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and the high levels of social service usage by women who are sex trafficked. Fifty (N = 50) women who were sex trafficked were surveyed using purposive and snowball sampling methods. The ACEs score for respondents ranged from 2 to 10 with an average score of 7.4 (SD = 2.3). Emotional and sexual abuse tied at 88 percent as the most frequently cited ACEs among the women in this sample. The prevalence of ACEs was significantly higher in this sample compared with known estimates in similar populations, ranging from 20 percent to 54 percent (p <.001). Considering the well-established link between ACEs and poor health outcomes, these findings point to the need for innovative and targeted social service provisions to women who were formerly sex trafficked that take into consideration the high level of ACEs of the women. Given the sociodemographic diversity of this sample, there is a need for services that are trauma-informed, innovative, and culturally sensitive in a variety of social service settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a robust quantitative approach for determining significant economic factors for sex trafficking in the United States. The aim is to study monthly counts of sex trafficking-related convictions, and use a wide range of economic variables as covariates to investigate their effect on conviction counts. A count time series model is considered along with a regression setup to include economic time series as covariates (economic factors) to explain the counts on sex trafficking-related convictions. The statistical significance of these economic factors is investigated and the significant factors are ranked based on appropriate model selection methods. The inclusion of time-lagged versions of the economic factor time series in the regression model is also explored. Our findings indicate that economic factors relating to immigration policy, consumer price index and labor market regulations are the most significant in explaining sex trafficking convictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The understudied bodily harm women experience after commercial sex (CS) may be partially explained by the prominence of Cartesian mind–body dualism in psychological science. Accordingly, we qualitatively explored the mind–body relationship among 79 female sex trafficking survivors. Survivors reported long-term negative alterations in feelings about the body, sex, and physical touch posttrafficking and these negative outcomes did not differ across women who self-perceived as consenting and women who self-perceived as forced. Implications for future research are presented, particularly on measuring dehumanization in CS which contributes to extensive harm even in the absence of physical aggression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of vulnerability to sex trafficking has been the subject of intense academic debate. It is well documented in the literature that child sex trafficking is facilitated by the abuse of a position of vulnerability, though limited research has focused on children's order of birth as an element of vulnerability to sex trafficking. The objective of this article, based on a sample of 112 Central American women smuggled to the United States for the sex trade before they had attained the age of eighteen years, is to examine whether the order of birth constitutes an element of vulnerability to sex trafficking. Trafficked minors had vulnerabilities linked to structural-level and individual-level factors. We conclude that sisters occupying the first place in the order of birth are the most susceptible to being recruited by an international network that smuggles women for prostitution. On the contrary, the youngest and middle sisters are less at risk due to the protection and guidance of the other sisters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For years, survivors of sex trafficking, people compelled by force or circumstance to engage in sex acts, were often wrongly convicted of prostitution and many collateral crimes in the United States. These convictions became a permanent part of survivors' criminal records, inhibiting their ability to satisfy necessities for a dignified life—finding work and a place to live, or going to school. Since 2010, forty-five state legislatures across the US have sought to solve this problem by passing vacatur laws. These laws allow the survivors of sex trafficking a means to erase certain charges and convictions from their records. The American movement to support the human rights of sex trafficking victims is part of a larger, global non-criminalization movement to support survivors' human rights. This article surveys the recent and robust diffusion of American vacatur laws, situates them amidst the larger, global non-criminalization movement, and highlights both the strengths and weaknesses of the current US vacatur laws with an eye toward closing the rights gap for sex trafficking survivors. We argue that extant vacatur legislation should be expanded to include all crimes traffickers compel victims to commit, should incorporate trauma-informed means for establishing victimhood, and should be passed at the federal level to ensure complete and uniform protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite extensive theory and research on the geography of crime, few studies have examined the geography of commercial sex and sex trafficking through a criminological lens. As such, this study explores how social disorganization and routine activities help explain the geography of commercial sex venues, specifically illicit massage businesses (IMBs) that host commercial sex. Because IMBs have also been linked to sex trafficking, understanding which environmental contexts are conducive to their presence may also help identify sex trafficking premises. Findings from hierarchical logistic regression models indicate that both theories point to significant correlates of IMB placement in census tracts and cities, yet neither theory provides a sufficient explanation alone. Implications for future research and policy will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The last decade witnessed increasing involvement of criminal street gangs in domestic sex trafficking in the United States. This paper analyzes business models and practices of gang-controlled sex trafficking in Northern Virginia, based on the cases available from PACER, an electronic public access service of the United States federal court. This analysis shows that business models of gang-controlled sex trafficking have become more sophisticated, taking advantages of the globalized financial system, new technology, social media, and the increasing prevalence of illicit commerce in a digital world with greater connectivity. Gangs' flexible structures combined with loyalty enforced among their members have shielded them from much law enforcement action. The analysis of different gangs involved in sex trafficking in Northern Virginia provides new insights into anti-trafficking policies and law enforcement responses tailored to their structures and modi operandi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While research has demonstrated a complex relationship between sex trafficking and substance use, the relationship between substance use and trauma bonding is not well understood. A trauma bond refers to an emotional attachment that can develop between victims and their abusers. This study aims to explore the relationship between substance use and trauma bonding among survivors of sex trafficking from the perspective of service providers working directly with survivors of sex trafficking. This qualitative study involved in-depth interviews with 10 participants. Purposeful sampling was employed among licensed social workers or counselors working directly with survivors of sex trafficking. Audio recordings of interviews were transcribed and coded using aspects of a grounded theory approach. Three themes emerged from the data regarding the relationship between substance use and trauma bonding among survivors of sex trafficking: substance use as a tactic, substance use as a risk factor, and substance use as a potential trauma bond. These findings support the need to treat substance use and mental health concerns concurrently among sex trafficking survivors. Additionally, these findings can inform legislators and policymakers as they consider the needs of survivors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, sex-trafficking awareness and prevention has increasingly become part of government-mandated health education. This exploratory study surveyed 250 U.S. adolescents to learn more about the use of media narratives in curricula about sex trafficking in light of research findings about victim-blaming responses to survivor narratives, as well as adolescents' still-developing emotion-regulation skills. Victim blaming is counterproductive to the goals of trafficking awareness and prevention curricula. Participants viewed one of four narrative messages about a sex-trafficking victim/survivor. Over half of participants reported victim-blaming responses after viewing the message. Participants reported low perceived efficacy regarding the ability to recognize the signs of trafficking, and some participants experienced intense fear responses to the messages. Victim blaming was not associated with fear or perceived efficacy, contradicting predictions from the Extended Parallel Process Model. This study concludes with recommendations for educators and others tasked with communicating with adolescents about sex trafficking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Augmented intelligence—as the fusion of human and artificial intelligence—is effectively being employed in response to a spectrum of risks and crimes that stem from the online sexual exploitation marketplace. As part of a study that was sponsored by the National Institute of Justice, the National Center on Sexual Exploitation has documented 15 tactics that have been used in more than 2650 US cities and counties to deter sex buyers from engaging with prostitution and sex trafficking systems. One of these tactics, technology-based enforcement and deterrence methods, has been used in more than 78 locations in the United States. This paper explores the issue of technology-facilitated trafficking in the online sexual exploitation marketplace and juxtaposes this with the use of augmented intelligence in collaborative responses to these crimes. Illustrative case studies are presented that describe how two organizations employ technology that utilizes the complementary strengths of humans and machines to deter sex buyers at the point of purchase. The human(e) touch of these organizations, combined with artificial intelligence, natural language processing, constructed websites, photos, and mobile technology, show significant potential for operational scaling, and provide a template for consideration by law enforcement agencies, criminal justice systems, and the larger multidisciplinary counter-trafficking community for collaborative replication in other settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, millions of individuals are victims of sex trafficking and are compelled to perform sexual acts through force, fraud, or coercion. Law enforcement agencies, non‐profit organisations, and social entrepreneurs increasingly are using information technology as a resource to locate, identify, and rescue victims and find, arrest, and convict traffickers. In this qualitative case study, we partnered with a non‐profit organisation that trains law enforcement officers to use information technology to counter sex trafficking. For this research study, we observed training courses, interviewed law enforcement officers and non‐profit staff, and reviewed technology usage logs and other data sources. Some officers readily used the new information technology post‐training, while others failed to use the new technology. Using conservation of resources theory as a sensitising lens, we identify two factors affecting the use of new technology post‐training: the level of organisational resources available to individuals and the individual's perceptions of the new information technology as a resource. With these findings, we develop the Resources Model of Information Technology Use to explain how perceptions of organisational and technology resources affect information technology usage patterns and outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study adopts a critical discourse analysis (CDA) approach to problematize the representation of victims in the online educational messaging on sex trafficking promoted in the US "end-demand" movement. The websites of 20 US anti-trafficking groups are analyzed. While these website-based messages are positioned to educate the public about sex trafficking, they are predominately framed toward problematizing sex work and essentializing women with racialized and marginalized identities in sex work, with no discursive recognition of intersectional structural inequalities (e.g., racism, sexism, poverty, homo/transphobia) that lead to trafficking. These ideologically charged messages, when presented as "facts," further the anti-sex work sentiment among the public, powerfully (re)produce and sustain the public (mis)perception equating "anti-sex trafficking" with "anti-sex work," and legitimize the carceral feminist anti-trafficking practice that primarily criminalizes, censors, and oppresses the agency, behaviors, and needs of structurally marginalized communities. This paper calls attention to how injustice may be (re)produced in the way trafficking is represented and how representational injustice may translate into material consequences, further subjecting already marginalized groups to criminalization and surveillance. Through incorporating representational justice into our conceptualization of racial and social justice, we may (re)build an anti-trafficking framework that is structurally competent, rights-inclusive, and centered on humanization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Women who are sex trafficked within the United States are often forced to get tattoos such as bar codes, dollar signs, or the name of the trafficker—the person who is selling them for sex. Tattoo artists may routinely encounter a sex trafficking survivor while she is being trafficked. As frontline professionals, they are in a unique position to assist in the secondary prevention of sex trafficking. Objectives: The main objective of this community-based participatory research project was to hold a tattoo-summit to: a) disseminate information on sex trafficking and the tattoo industry, b) assess the feasibility of training/education of tattoo artists on sex trafficking, c) determine areas of foci and best method(s) for a training/educational intervention, and d) recruit volunteers for a community advisory board to assist in the training/education of tattoo artists on the secondary prevention of sex trafficking. Methods: The tattoo-summit included a presentation by a nationally known tattoo artist, a free educational luncheon-presentation on sex trafficking by a public health researcher and a law-enforcement sex trafficking expert, and a mediated discussion. Post-summit evaluation data included improvement in knowledge of sex trafficking and ability to respond to trafficking in their work, and participants' perspectives on future training approaches. Conclusions: This study showed that community-based participatory research is an effective way to partner with tattoo artists in raising awareness of sex trafficking. Hence, it is important that we reach out to non-traditional frontline partners such as tattoo artists to improve the health of all people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We map the organized sex trafficking networks (STNs) into a network flow model and develop an interdependent network interdiction model (NIM) to disrupt such networks. Our model considers the interdependence between the information and physical victim networks and reformulates the problem using duality theory. Our NIM provides a clear strategy for interdicting STNs. Namely, it determines when to monitor (i.e., gather information) or arrest the criminals to maximize the impact of the interdiction operation and cripple the network. We tested our NIM using three federally prosecuted sex trafficking cases in the United States of different sizes and structural properties: hybrid, international transactional, and Tenancingo models. Our experiments show promising results regarding the effectiveness of our NIM in all network types. In addition to that, we tested our model with an increasingly higher fraction of missing information to account for the inherently hidden nature of illicit networks. Our study provides analytical insight regarding (1) the importance of building the case prior to the arrests of criminals in illicit networks and (2) deploying a holistic strategy to improve interdiction and enhance the fight against sex trafficking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- This chapter examines the relationship between intersections of race and gender for vulnerability for human trafficking and criminalization of exploitation in the United States that is rooted in the broader socio-historical contexts dating to colonization and chattel enslavement. Methodology/approach -- This chapter utilizes intersectional criminology and historical intersectional criminology as epistemological frameworks to contextualize the construction of race and gender that began with colonization of indigenous populations to chattel enslavement of Africans and their descendants. Overall, this chapter's approach is a call for contextualization within the study of human trafficking and an intersectional approach to understanding the structures that enable trafficking and the ramifications it has for victims. Findings -- Through an application of intersectional criminology, the findings herein demonstrate how racial ideologies and legacies within the United States contributed to the vulnerabilities of race and gender for sex trafficking predation as well as criminalization for Black and Native American girls and women. The gendered analysis of men and women who chose to become sex traffickers reveal different gendered pathways into trafficking offending and addresses the significance of these pathways for trafficking victims and potential future traffickers. These analyses demonstrate that intersectional criminology problematizes current research on human trafficking and future directions research should incorporate. Originality/value -- Current criminological research has a scarcity of intersectional criminological applications and fewer that offer a critical analysis of structural inequalities, histories of colonization and chattel enslavement, and interrogation of identities in both vulnerabilities for trafficking victims, how they may interact with agents from the criminal justice system, and the impacts of intersecting identities for traffickers and their offending. If criminology scholars aim to use their research in anti-trafficking efforts and policy recommendations, these analyses are vital both for addressing victimization and offending pathways for exploitation victims and their exploiters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is the commercial sexual exploitation of a minor citizen or legal resident within the United States. Previous research suggests that although DMST is often discussed as though it is a uniform phenomenon, traffickers may use different tactics and exploit different victim vulnerabilities depending upon their established relationships with those who are at-risk for trafficking. The purpose of this qualitative study, therefore, is to explore the relationship patterns and dynamics that emerge between DMST victims and their romantic partner traffickers. This study utilizes the secondary case files of 38 domestic minors who were trafficked for sex by their romantic partners in one state in the United States between 2012 and 2017. The study is conceptualized according to the principles of directed content analysis and multiple case study design and relies heavily on previous research findings related to victim-trafficker relationship typology. The authors conducted two rounds of coding before applying themes to the case files. The analysis revealed that DMST victims trafficked by romantic partners are often influenced by environmental circumstances, such as gang involvement and family systems involvement. Romantic partner traffickers use specific recruitment tactics to entrap their victims, and exercise methods such as caregiving, sexual violence, and psychological violence to maintain control over their victims. Study results provide a significant extension to the anti-trafficking field's understanding of DMST and the romantic partner relationships that underpin it. The results suggest that anti-trafficking advocates should screen at-risk adolescents for gang involvement, family involvement in the sex industry. They should also educate at-risk adolescents about DMST as a potential component of teen dating violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we explore third parties who unexpectedly fell within the legal definition of a sex trafficker. The anti-trafficking lobby and media stories frequently portray traffickers as organised, psychopathic, violent, and child kidnappers. We dismantle these depictions by showing the unexpected people who qualify as traffickers. This paper incorporates findings from two studies involving eighty-five third parties in New York City and forty-nine in Chicago. We analyse how teenagers, drivers, and boyfriends qualify as traffickers under US law. We find that two-thirds of them hold inaccurate views about the difference between sex trafficking and facilitating prostitution. Trafficking can be incidental or temporary, and traffickers in these samples were often oblivious to their legal status, potentially resulting in lengthy prison sentences. We conclude by calling for differential sentencing based on traffickers' age, and awareness campaigns designed to alert third parties of the legal distinctions between pandering and sex trafficking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child sex trafficking is a troubling, yet hidden, social problem in the United States. Black girls are particularly vulnerable given the intersection of their race and gender as they navigate biological, psychological, and social vulnerabilities. Yet, little light is shed on their experiences, and consequently, strategies to practice with them are lacking. To resist the universal focus on sex trafficking, and to develop targeted approaches to address marginalized groups, such as Black girls, it is imperative to embrace critical, non-exclusionary, and non-oppressive perspectives. This paper introduces critical race theory (CRT) and employs some of its tenets to explain the oppression that Black girls face. Finally, it provides practice strategies, grounded in CRT, to meet the unique challenges of Black girls thereby advancing social work practice in an increasingly racialized context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Topic: This scoping review investigated research regarding the magnitude of minor sex trafficking (domestic minor sex trafficking and/or commercial sexual exploitation of children) in the United States, summarizing estimates, methodologies, and strengths and weaknesses of the studies. Method: Using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, peer-reviewed articles and the gray literature were accessed via databases searches, reference harvesting, and expert advice. Articles were included if they provided a count or prevalence proportion estimate of trafficked or at-risk minors across or within a region of the United States. Six empirical studies, published from 1999 to 2017, were included in the review. Results: Included studies produced count estimates (n = 3) or prevalence proportion estimates (n = 3) for youth at risk of minor sex trafficking (n = 2) or reporting victimization (n = 5). Studies examined sex trafficking risk and victimization in different geographical areas, including across the United States (n = 2), in New York City (n = 1), and in Ohio (n = 1). Further, several studies focused on particular populations, such as street and shelter youths (n = 1) and adjudicated males (n = 1). Sampling methodologies of reviewed estimates included traditional random sampling (n = 1), nationally representative sampling (n = 2), convenience sampling (n = 1), respondent-driven sampling (n = 1), purposive sampling (n = 1), and use of census data (n = 2). Conclusion: Little research has estimated the prevalence of minor sex trafficking in the United States. The existing studies examine different areas and populations and use different categories to estimate the problem. The estimates reviewed here should be cited cautiously. Future research is needed on this important topic, including methodologies to produce more representative estimates of this hard-to-reach population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex slavery operated through the comfort women system during World War II has been a historical shame and an inconvenient truth for both the Japanese and the Korean. This study, through Nora Okja Keller's Comfort Woman, investigates the life of a Korean character forced to become a comfort woman, arguing that domestic patriarchy and colonial patriarchy are the main institutions which transform her into a sex slave. A representation of Korean comfort women, she is exploited by the patriarchal oppression in her family and the Japanese colonial patriarchy. Her body is transformed into a commodity to sustain her family and offer comfort and pleasure to Japanese soldiers. Despite her liberation, she becomes a traumatised subject whose painful memories keep haunting her even when she relocates to the United States. Patriarchal violence in the form of sex slavery has destroyed her life and left a detrimental legacy preventing her from rebuilding a new successful life. The traumatic past causes this character and her daughter to be seen as weird Asians who are "double-othered" in the United States, a new world where they are unable to recover from profound trauma in spite of their new identity as Korean American. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The United States' Institute of Medicine recommends that health care providers be aware of sex trafficking (ST) indicators and conduct risk assessments to identify people at risk. However, the challenges among those who conduct such assessments remain largely understudied. The aim of this study was to understand the perceived barriers to ST risk assessment among health care providers in a large health care organization. Methods: This study used a collective case study approach in five sites of a large health care organization that serves high-risk populations in a Midwestern state. Twenty-three in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with health care staff (e.g. medical assistants, nurse practitioners). Two research team members conducted independent deductive coding (e.g. knowledge of ST), and inductive coding to analyse emerging themes (e.g. responses to ST risk or commercial sex disclosures, provider role ambiguity). Results: Although staff routinely screened by asking 'Have you ever traded sex for money or drugs?', participants primarily described avoiding further discussions of ST with adult patients because they (1) aimed to be non-judgmental, (2) viewed following up as someone else's job, and/or (3) lacked confidence to address ST concerns themselves, particularly when differentiating sex work from ST. Differences all emerged based on clinical context (e.g. urban location). Conclusions: There may be missed opportunities to assess patients for ST risk and use harm-reduction strategies or safety plan to address patients' needs. Implications for practice, policy, and future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human trafficking is an egregious violation of basic human rights that has reached global proportions. Despite the gradual proliferation of social science research and policy endeavors, a contemporary understanding of state human trafficking statutes has received limited discussion. Existing commentary tends to underserve survivor experiences in the law. Using a database of 982 human trafficking state statutes, this study seeks to describe the landscape of how the law acknowledges survivors. In doing so, we found that states acknowledge survivors through 1. formal agency guidelines, 2. survivor rights and services, and 3. education and awareness for the general public. Findings suggest that the nation's human trafficking statutes are best characterized as a patchwork of laws. We conclude by making recommendations for future legislative reform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theoretical frameworks have been developed for utilizing intersectionality theory in empirical social science research. This article 1) examines how one theoretical framework can be used to assess the extent to which United States sex trafficking research employs an intersectional approach and 2) extends this framework to include a Social Justice and Action stage to inform the dissemination of research findings. Findings from this review revealed that, overall, US sex trafficking research selectively incorporates an intersectional perspective and conceptualizes sex trafficking as an individual-level issue with limited focus on how individual experiences are also influenced by interlocking systems of oppression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present qualitative interpretive meta-synthesis (QIMS) is to explore, categorize, and confront one of the powerful narratives present within the counter-trafficking movement--that of evangelical Christian communities in the United States. The authors focused on the analysis of scholarly ethnographies and autoethnographies (N=7) of the evangelical Christian counter-trafficking culture. The QIMS yielded four themes that can be used to explain and categorize the denouement that is often visible in evangelical sex trafficking narratives, including 1) the perfect victim, 2) sexual objectification, 3) rescue for a greater purpose, and 4) co-optation of narratives. Results of this study point to how laypeople, social workers, and professional activists can shape and promote survivor-centered narratives that more fully advance the human rights of sex trafficking survivors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Homicide is a prevalent cause of death among sex workers, given their increased risk of violence due to proximity to criminal activities such as drug trade and human trafficking. This study analyzes homicide data from the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) covering 49 US states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico from 2012 to 2020. Case inclusion criteria included: (1) manner of death of homicide, and (2) sex work-related circumstance. Descriptive analyses examined victim and injury characteristics, suspect information, and circumstances. The study identified 321 sex work-related homicides (54% female, 41% male, 6% transgender). Among female victims, 94% were sex workers, and 54% of their suspects were clients. Money conflicts (23%) and other crimes (30%), most often in progress, commonly precipitated homicides of female victims. Substance use problems were reported in 49% of female victims, with 25% of their suspected perpetrators reportedly using substances in the preceding hours. For male victims, 54% were clients and 9% were sex workers. Suspects in male homicides were primarily sex workers (34%) or individuals engaged in sex work-adjacent criminal activities (36%). Money conflicts (49%), other crimes (47%) most often in progress, and sex trafficking involvement (25%) commonly precipitated homicides with male victims. Transgender sex worker victims were mostly transfeminine (94%) and non-Hispanic black (89%). Money conflicts (78%) most commonly precipitated homicides among transgender sex worker victims. These findings can inform prevention strategies addressing underlying risk factors for persons involved in sex work., (© 2023 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

Every year, thousands of people are labor- and sex-trafficked throughout the United States, generating billions of dollars. Many of these victims are children. They are included in the more than 80% of victims who seek some type of medical care during their captivity. In addition, more than 90% of the children exploited attend school daily. By seeking medical care and attending school, victims place health care personnel, especially pediatric and school nurses, in a unique position to help identify and assist them. Pediatric and school nurses both practice in settings that allow for familiarization with a child and the opportunity for private medical screenings. These opportunities allow for red flag indicators to be recognized and possible victims to be identified and/or disclose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human trafficking is a public health social work issue. This review aimed to present the current state (nature and extent) of sex trafficking research, categorize best practices, and identify recommendations for professionals. Comprehensive literature searches of online databases were conducted to identify eligible articles from January 2000 to March 2019. The search yielded 467 studies, 87 met the predetermined criteria for inclusion. Seven themes identified: awareness, identification, at-risk populations, health issues, implementation of trafficking legislation, service and program implementation, and exploiters. Findings indicate the need for additional research to determine the most effective practices to increase awareness and identification, widespread TVPA implementation, reduce risk factors and resulting health disparities, offer services to survivors and prevention of potential victims. There should be significant efforts to enhance all sex trafficking research in the United States to implement effective, sustainable and evidence-based interdisciplinary interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The attitudes of others towards individuals who sell sex (ISS) can have a significant impact on how the population is treated in interpersonal interactions and social systems. The current study outlines the development and validation of Attitudes Towards Individuals Who Sell Sex Inventory (ATISS), an instrument designed to reliably and validly assess attitudes towards ISS. The authors present three studies outlining the development and validation of the ATISS. Study 1 revealed a four-factor structure across 21 items including social distance, human value, impact on society, and parenting. Study 2a and 2b revealed sufficient construct, convergent, and discriminant validity for the ATISS including adequate test-retest reliability. Findings indicate that the ATISS is a psychometrically sound instrument to measure attitudes towards ISS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex work was not a prominent public issue in the USA a generation ago. Law and law enforcement were fairly settled. Over the past two decades, however, a robust campaign has sought to intensify the stigmatization and criminalization of the participants involved in all types of sex work, which are now conflated with human trafficking. These efforts have been remarkably successful in reshaping government policy and legal norms and in enhancing penalties for existing offenses. The article analyzes these developments within the framework of a modernized version of moral crusade theory that includes both instrumental and expressive arguments against sex work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite new mandates to identify and respond to labor trafficking crimes, US law enforcement struggles to integrate labor trafficking enforcement with traditional policing routines and roles. As a result, human trafficking enforcement has primarily focused on sex trafficking and few labor trafficking cases have been identified and prosecuted. This study utilizes data from 86 qualitative interviews with municipal, state, county and federal law enforcement, victim service providers and labor trafficking victims in four US communities to inform our understanding of police responses to labor trafficking in local communities. Through the coding of these interviews across a series of themes, we identify three major challenges that impact police identification and response to labor trafficking crimes. These include lack of clarity about the definition of labor trafficking, lack of institutional readiness to address labor trafficking, and routines of police work that undermine police responsiveness to labor trafficking in local communities. Considering these challenges, we explore strategies law enforcement can take to improve identification, including developing non-traditional partnerships with labor inspection and local regulatory agencies. Additionally, interview data suggest a role for the police in ensuring labor trafficking victims are safe and their needs are met, regardless of the outcomes of the criminal justice process. This is the first study to examine police responses to labor trafficking from the perspective of police, service providers and victims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The available research on specialized interventions for youth experiencing commercial sexual exploitation almost exclusively focuses on the impact and efficacy related to cisgender girls, despite the inclusion of youth who identify as transgender in these programs. This paper aims to present a case study on the experience of a transgender adolescent girl who experienced commercial sexual exploitation and provides a narrative of the multifarious challenges she faced while involved in institutional systems of care. Design/methodology/approach: This paper conducted an in-depth case review of all records on "Jade," a white adolescent transgender girl who experienced commercial sexual exploitation, from a specialty court program in the juvenile justice system between 2012 and 2016. Her experiences throughout childhood exemplify many of the unique challenges that transgender girls and young women with histories of exploitation or trafficking may encounter within service delivery and socioecological systems. This paper applied concepts adapted from the gender minority stress theoretical model to understand how minority gender identity can shape the experiences and outcomes of the youth impacted by commercial sexual exploitation. Findings: Jade's narrative underscores the interplay of gender-based sexual violence, heteronormative structural barriers, transphobia and their intersectional impact on her experience while receiving specialized care. The intersectional hardships she experienced likely contributed to adverse biopsychosocial outcomes, including high rates of medical and behavioral health diagnoses and expectations of further rejection. Originality/value: This paper highlights the extraordinary challenges and barriers faced by an often under-recognized and overlooked subset of the youth impacted by commercial sexual exploitation, who may receive services that do not account for their unique needs related to gender expression and identity. This paper exemplifies how internalized stigma along with expectations of further rejection and victimization have implications for clinical and multidisciplinary intervention settings. Jade's case underscores the need for improved access to supportive services for youth with minority gender identities, including peer community-building opportunities. Finally, this paper identifies a critical gap in US legislation and social policy. This gap contributes to the structural harms faced by transgender and gender-nonconforming youth receiving services during or following experiences of commercial sexual exploitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite hundreds of thousands of individuals currently living in modern slavery within the United States, there are relatively few active human trafficking cases in the United States, and efforts to combat trafficking tend to overemphasize the trafficking of foreign nationals and focus too intensely on prosecution, and not prevention, efforts. In order to more effectively reduce sex trafficking within the United States, states should move away from the criminalization of sex work, which prevents victims from seeking assistance from or offering information to authorities. Rather than full decriminalization, which could lead to an inflation of demand for trafficking along with all commercial sex in general, states should instead explore regulatory policies regulatory policies which would protect the rights of sex workers and reduce the stigma surrounding sex work, while also actively working against an increase in the incidence of trafficking. However, in order for this to be a viable policy option for decisionmakers, there needs to be a shift in the American public away from examining prostitution as a "morality policy," either through an acknowledgment that commercial sex is not an inherently immoral act or that personal moral bounds should not dictate law. Overall, this paper seeks to demonstrate the failure of the United States' current actions against sex trafficking and highlight how prostitution policy can be altered to combat this issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Homeless, runaway, and transgender youth are at high risk for commercial sexual exploitation in the United States. Research examining this phenomenon is growing but requires synthesis to facilitate its use by professionals who serve this population. The purpose of this review was to aggregate the qualitative evidence regarding commercially sexually exploited youth (CSEY) in the United States. Methods: The search included published and unpublished qualitative studies with current or former CSEY who reside in the United States. Results: There were 19 studies included in the review with a total of 795 participants. Eight themes were identified and grouped into three broader categories: experiences that preceded sex work entry, experiences that facilitated sex work continuation, and experiences that facilitated sex work exit. Conclusions: Understanding the barriers and facilitators of commercial sexual exploitation can inform the development of interventions that address the needs of CSEY and youth at risk for exploitation. The results of this review highlight the social and economic influences as well as the role of positive and negative reinforcements involved in sex work entry, its continuation, and exit. Needs for services, research, and advocacy are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is the commercial sexual exploitation of a minor American citizen or permanent resident within the United States. It is a human rights abuse and carries significant consequences for victims' psychological, physical, and social health. To interrupt DMST victimization patterns, it is important for researchers and advocates to fully understand how victims' vulnerabilities are exploited by different people in their lives, but investigations of DMST victim–trafficker relationships are largely unexplored in the literature. The purpose of this cross-sectional path analysis of archival data, therefore, is to explore the influence of victims' unmet basic needs on their victimization within specific types of DMST relationships. The results of this study suggest that unmet basic needs may play less of a role in influencing victim–trafficker relationship type than might be hypothesized based upon broader understandings of human trafficking vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents an analysis of how activists, politicians, and the media framed youth involvement in the sex trade during the 1970s, the 1990s, and the 2000s in the United States. Across these periods of public concern about the issue, similar framing has recurred that has drawn upon gendered and racialized notions of victimization and perpetration. This frame has successfully brought attention to this issue by exploiting public anxieties at historical moments when social change was threatening white male dominance. Using intersectional feminist theory, I argue that mainstream rhetoric opposing the youth sex trade worked largely within neoliberal logics, ignoring histories of dispossession and structural violence and reinforcing individualistic notions of personhood and normative ideas about subjectivity and agency. As part of the ongoing project of racial and gender formation in US society, this discourse has shored up neoliberal governance, particularly the build-up of the prison industrial complex, and it has obscured the state's failure to address the myriad social problems that make youth vulnerable to the sex trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the number, risk factors, and demographic characteristics of potential human trafficking victims from tips reported to a social services agency in a major Midwest metropolitan area from 2008 through 2017. Methods: The agency, comprising 90 employees serving more than 10 000 persons annually, received federal funding to raise awareness about trafficking and to identify and support persons who are at risk for trafficking through training, coalition building, direct outreach and service, and case management. We, the authors, counted the numbers of tips and potential victims reported to the agency by year, type of trafficking, economic sector, sex, region of origin, and age and looked for new risk factors for trafficking. Results: Data were available for 213 tips received from September 1, 2008, through June 30, 2017, and for 82 potential victims identified from July 1, 2011, through June 30, 2017. Labor trafficking (126 tips, 57 potential victims) was more common than sex trafficking (59 tips, 17 potential victims). The number of tips varied during the study period. Tips and potential victims were diverse and included male and female children and adults. Most victims were from Mexico (n = 68), the United States (n = 47), Asia (n = 31), and Central and South America (n = 23). Potential victims were exploited in several industries including agriculture, construction, commercial sex, and landscaping. New risk factors for trafficking were exploitation within marriage and work in the sales industry. Conclusions: Domestic and foreign-born men, women, and children are all at risk for labor and sex trafficking. Direct outreach to foreign-born victims should be a priority. The new risk factors should be explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few studies have explored the characteristics and arrest patterns of sex traffickers, particularly sex traffickers of persons under the age of 18 (minors) in the U.S. The purpose of this study is to understand the behavior and characteristics of a national cross sectional sample of sex traffickers of minors during a six-year period. This study explored cases involving the arrest of sex traffickers of minors or persons under the age of 18 in the United States from 2010 to 2015. Sex traffickers of minors was defined as a person who facilitates and/or benefits by receiving something of value for the commercial sexual exploitation of a minor (person under the age of 18) or attempts to do so. During a systematic online search, 1,416 sex traffickers of minors were identified. The arrests were found in 46 states in the United States, two U.S. territories, and Washington D.C. The sex traffickers of minors were mostly males (n = 1067, 75.4%), and of those with race identified (only 51.6%), 71.7% were African American. Their ages ranged from 15 to 70 years old (M = 28.5, SD = 8.54). Characteristics of the sex trafficker and the sex trafficking situation are analyzed and implications discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study reported in this article assessed prevalence and demographic correlates of sex trafficking in a purposive sample of 270 young people experiencing homelessness in three U.S. cities (Philadelphia; Phoenix; and Washington, DC) and at five host agencies. Participants were 57% male, 38% female, 4% transgender, and 1% other. The average age of participants was 20.7 years (SD = 2.0 years). The majority of the participants were African American (56%), followed by white (14%) and multiracial (14%). The Human Trafficking Interview and Assessment Measure detected that nearly one in five young people were victims of sex trafficking, either due to force, fraud, or coercion (FFC); age; or both. Those who were sex trafficked were more likely than those who were not sex trafficked to be female, sexual minorities, or Latino and to have either dropped out of high school or obtained a GED. Differences between being trafficked due to FFC and being trafficked due to age were also investigated. Findings support the need for development of targeted prevention and intervention efforts for young people experiencing homelessness that address sex trafficking victimization and related risk factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In recent years, there has been an increase in funds and services available to address the needs of commercially sexually exploited children (CSEC). While previous studies have explored the mental, behavioral, and physical needs of CSEC victims and survivors, few studies have focused on the service needs CSEC victims and survivors themselves deem most important. The current study seeks to bridge this gap by garnering American CSEC victims' and survivors' perspectives regarding CSEC service strengths, weaknesses, and gaps. Method: Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with 13 adult survivors of CSEC to examine their perceptions of current CSEC services in the United States. All interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and imported into a qualitative data analysis program. Using an inductive approach, two major themes emerged: short-term needs and long-term needs. Results: Short-term needs included victim identification, housing, and emergency medical care. Long-term needs included life-skills, community building, legal assistance, and medical care. The results point to the complex needs of CSEC victims/survivors. Discussion: While CSEC services continue to develop, there remain many gaps in care in the services available. Study findings provide valuable insight to practitioners and researchers alike and identify the most critical needs of CSEC victims and survivors. Implications for practice and research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract While the body of research on effective interventions for children and young people who experience commercial sexual exploitation is growing, much remains unknown regarding intervention needs, particularly in relation to the role of residential care in meeting those needs. In an effort to fill the gap in this research, this paper will report on a study comparing case files for girls victimized (n = 73) and not victimized (n = 62) by commercial sexual exploitation who were living in a residential care setting in a large southwestern city in the United States. Findings indicate that sexually exploited girls were more likely to report experiences of child sexual abuse, substance misuse/addiction, dating violence, and gang affiliation; they were also significantly more likely to run away from the group home facility and be identified as having an ‘unsuccessful discharge’. In the second part of the article we will consider the results of this study in the context of a wider discourse on how best to intervene in the lives of CSEC survivors in the United States and throughout the world. Highlights • Comparing girls with CSEC experiences to those without helps understand their needs. • CSEC experiences are associated with gang involvement, drug use, and dating violence. • Girls who experienced CSEC are more likely to run away from a group home setting. • Traditional interventions may not be best suited to help and protect CSEC victims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Approximately 18,000 people are trafficked into the United States each year and forced into commercial sex work. Up to 80% of victims are seen by a health care provider. In the health care setting, they rarely identify themselves as victims of human trafficking (HT), making it difficult to recognize them. Only a few health care professionals know how to identify victims of trafficking among their patients. The purpose of this article was to review the process used in health care settings to identify victims of traffickers. The author conducted a search to locate current scholarly articles addressing HT identification in health care settings. Each article was reviewed for its significance in victim identification. To address the problem of identifying and assisting patients who are being trafficked, some hospitals developed their own protocols. However, the wide variation in what is included on these assessment protocols makes it difficult to hold up any particular protocol as a national model. The author concludes that until more effective standardized national protocols for the identification of the HT victim within the health care settings are developed, National Human Trafficking Resource Center's method of screening should be used to help increase the degree at which patient victims are identified within the health care setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than 50% of women entering substance use treatment in the United States reported having traded sex for money or drugs. Women's participation in addiction treatment and related services is essential to their recovery and increased safety, stabilization, and quality of life. This article's aim is to explore the barriers related to accessing detox facilities and essential services including substance use treatment and residential services for women impacted by commercial sexual exploitation (CSE). Data are drawn from a larger, community-based, grounded theory study. In-depth interview data were collected from 30 adult women who traded sex as adults (through maximum variation and snowball sampling), as well as 20 service providers who come into contact with adult women who trade sex (through nominations and purposive sampling). Finding suggest that women often encountered sobriety requirements, which created barriers to accessing addiction treatment or residential services. Some organizations' policies required evicting women if they were caught using, which created additional challenges for women who relapsed. Women wanted to avoid becoming “dopesick” on the streets or at home, which partially contributed to them needing to maintain their addiction. Consequently, some returned to sex trading, thus increasing their risk of trafficking. Some women engaged in creative strategies, such as claiming they were suicidal, in order to access the detox facilities in hospitals. Some women indicated they were only able to detox when they were forced to do so in jail or prison, often without medical assistance. Implications to improve health care delivery for this population are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, sex trafficking victims have been identified at ages across the lifespan but young persons (under age 25) have been found to have unique vulnerabilities. At-risk youth, such as those who run away from home or those experiencing homelessness, are also at an increased risk of sexual exploitation. To better understand the scope and complexity of sex trafficking among these at-risk youth, a convenience sample of 131 homeless youth aged 12 to 25 years old experiencing homelessness recruited from Kentuckiana youth service providers completed an enhanced version of the Youth Experiences Survey (YES). Univariate and bivariate analyses were conducted. Results indicated that 41.2% of the homeless youth were victims of sex trafficking. The sex trafficked youth were more likely to report previous self-harm behaviors, suicide attempts, and substance use. This study not only provides support for improved service delivery, but also provides essential statistics that should inform internal policy and procedures for youth serving agencies in Kentucky and Indiana. Findings highlight a need for trauma-informed interventions designed to treat not only females but also males and LGBTQ youth. Additionally, service providers should consider partnering with victim providers and clinicians to offer therapeutic groups, individual therapy, and supportive services that increase prevention, education, and wraparound care for clients. In regards to future research, findings point towards a need to better understand the role that trauma and adverse childhood experiences may play in making young people vulnerable to sex trafficking, and encourage the need for testing prevention and early intervention practices among vulnerable youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The case study of an early twentieth century controversy over “white slavery” demonstrates the importance of an explicit consideration of mobility based rhetoric to understanding space and political subjectivities within space. Through an analytical framework of mobility that considers scale, connection, time, and agency, I find that the city was constructed as a gendered and racialized space, which enabled restrictions to corporal mobility. I provide both a justification and a model for reading mobility based rhetoric in public controversy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines "Dear John", a public information campaign that ran from 2006-2008 in Atlanta, GA, to ask what narrative it conveys about commercial sex and those who engage in it, in order to understand the gendered (and other) discursive constructions it produces, reflects, and complicates about these activities and subjects. Drawing from both policy and sex work/trafficking scholarship, this paper argues that Dear John used symbolic images and direct and consequential text to convey a "male demand" narrative, which holds that men's demand for sexual services harms girls and young women and will not be tolerated. Yet, in so doing, Dear John also reinforced particularly gendered characterizations of individuals who trade sex, while de-emphasizing other factors that increase young peoples' vulnerabilities to and within sex work. The paper concludes by discussing Dear John's outcomes and significance for scholars concerned with sex work, policy, and social change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Estimates suggest that hundreds of thousands of sex trafficking victims live in the United States. Several screening tools for healthcare professionals to identify sex trafficking victims have been proposed, but the effectiveness of these tools in the emergency department (ED) remains unclear. Our primary objective in this study was to evaluate the feasibility of a screening survey to identify adult victims of sex trafficking in the ED. We also compared the sensitivity of emergency physician concern and a screening survey for identifying sex trafficking victims in the ED and determined the most effective question(s) for identifying adult victims of sex trafficking. Methods: We enrolled a convenience sample of medically stable female ED patients, age 18-40 years. Patients completed a 14-question survey. Physician concern for sex trafficking was documented prior to informing the physician of the survey results. A "yes" answer to any question or physician concern was considered a positive screen, and the patient was offered social work consultation. We defined a "true positive" as a patient admission for or social work documentation of sex trafficking. Demographic and clinical information were collected from the electronic medical record. Results: We enrolled 143 patients, and of those 39 (27%, 95% confidence interval [CI] [20%-35%]) screened positive, including 10 (25%, 95% CI [13%-41%]) ultimately identified as victims of sex trafficking. Sensitivity of the screening survey (100%, 95% CI [74%-100%]) was better than physician concern (40%, 95% CI [12%-74%]) for identifying victims of sex trafficking, difference 60%, 95% CI [30%-90%]. Physician specificity (91%, 95% CI [85%-95%]), however, was slightly better than the screening survey (78%, 95% CI [70%-85%]), difference 13%, 95% CI [4%-21%]. All 10 (100%, 95%CI [74%-100%]) "true positive" cases answered "yes" to the screening question regarding abuse. Conclusion: Identifying adult victims of sex trafficking in the ED is feasible. A screening survey appears to have greater sensitivity than physician concern, and a single screening question may be sufficient to identify all adult victims of sex trafficking in the ED. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study Objective Our aim was to assess: (1) medical trainee and practicing physician awareness about domestic sex trafficking of minors; and (2) whether respondents believe that awareness of trafficking is important to their practice. Design and Setting We designed an anonymous electronic survey, and a convenience sample was collected from June through October 2013. Participants Voluntary participants were 1648 medical students, residents, and practicing physicians throughout the United States. Interventions and Main Outcome Measures Data were analyzed for correlations between study cohort characteristics and: (1) agreement with the statement: “knowing about sex trafficking in my state is important to my profession”; (2) knowledge of national statistics regarding the sex trafficking of minors; and (3) knowledge of appropriate responses to encountering a trafficked victim. Results More practicing physicians than residents or medical students: (1) agreed or strongly agreed that knowledge about human trafficking was important to their practice (80.6%, 71.1%, and 69.2%, respectively; P = .0008); (2) correctly estimated the number of US trafficked youth according to the US Department of State data (16.1%, 11.7%, and 7.9%, respectively; P = .0011); and (3) were more likely to report an appropriate response to a trafficked victim (40.4%, 20.4%, and 8.9%, respectively; P = .0001). Conclusion Although most medical trainees and physicians place importance on knowing about human trafficking, they lack knowledge about the scope of the problem, and most would not know where to turn if they encountered a trafficking victim. There exists a need for standardized trafficking education for physicians, residents, and medical students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex trafficking is a pervasive threat across the globe and all fifty states of the United States, especially for underage female youth. However, there is a dearth of literature and awareness in domestic rural areas. Sex trafficking is a form of human trafficking that threatens all communities, including rural areas. This extended literature review looks closely at recent studies, and the grey literature to garner a better understanding of the implications for rural social work practice. The review concludes with recommendations and implications for future research, policy, and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]