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Key Takeaways: In 2019, US utilities on average charged the equivalent of 10.1 hours' labor at minimum wage for basic monthly water and sewer service for a four‐person household. Basic water and sewer service cost an average of 12.4% of disposable income for a four‐person household at the 20th percentile income. US water and sewer service on average became less affordable over the past two years, varying by region and utility ownership, driven by increasing water and nonwater prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investments in water and sanitation systems are believed to have led to the decline in typhoid fever in developed countries, such that most cases now occur in regions lacking adequate clean water and sanitation. Exploring seasonal and long-term patterns in historical typhoid mortality in the United States can offer deeper understanding of disease drivers. We fit modified Time-series Susceptible-Infectious-Recovered models to city-level weekly mortality counts to estimate seasonal and long-term typhoid transmission. We examined seasonal transmission separately by city and aggregated by water source. Typhoid transmission peaked in late summer/early fall. Seasonality varied by water source, with the greatest variation occurring in cities with reservoirs. We then fit hierarchical regression models to measure associations between long-term transmission and annual financial investments in water and sewer systems. Overall historical $1 per capita ($16.13 in 2017) investments in the water supply were associated with approximately 5% (95% confidence interval: 3–6%) decreases in typhoid transmission, while $1 increases in the overall sewer system investments were associated with estimated 6% (95% confidence interval: 4–9%) decreases. Our findings aid in the understanding of typhoid transmission dynamics and potential impacts of water and sanitation improvements, and can inform cost-effectiveness analyses of interventions to reduce the typhoid burden. Author summary: Typhoid fever remains a major source of morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries. Historical investments in water and sanitation systems are thought to have led to the decline in typhoid fever in developed countries, such that most of the global burden of disease now occurs in regions with poor sanitary conditions and inadequate access to clean water and sanitation. However, there is limited empirical evidence to quantify the impact of investments in water and sanitation on typhoid fever incidence. We developed a mathematical model to examine trends in weekly typhoid mortality data from 1889–1931 in 16 U.S. cities. Through this analysis, we were able to examine how seasonal patterns of typhoid transmission varied geographically and historically depending on the water supply and treatment, and quantify the relationship between investments in water and sanitation infrastructures and long-term typhoid transmission rates. Our findings have important implications for the understanding of typhoid transmission dynamics and potential impact of improvements in water and sanitation infrastructure. Resource-poor countries must prioritize spending on public health issues, weighing the costs and benefits of interventions. Our results can help to inform comparative cost-effectiveness analyses of different interventions to reduce the global burden of typhoid fever. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Household water insecurity is a global threat to human health and development, yet existing metrics lack a systematic consideration of geographic inequality and spatial variation. In this article, we introduce the notion of plumbing poverty as a conceptual and methodological heuristic to examine the intersectional nature of infrastructure, space, and social inequality. Plumbing poverty is understood in a dual sense: first, as a material and infrastructural condition produced by social relations that fundamentally vary through space and, second, as a methodology that operationalizes the spatial exploration of social inequality. Drawing on millions of census records, we strip household water security down to a single vital measure—the presence of complete household plumbing—to assess its spatial and sociodemographic trends. We identify distinct hot spots (geographic clusters of higher than average values) of plumbing poverty, track its social and spatial variance, and expose its fundamentally racialized nature. Our study finds that plumbing poverty is neither spatially nor socially random in the United States. Rather, plumbing incompleteness is spatially clustered in certain regions of the country and is clearly racialized: Living in an American Indian or Alaskan Native, black, or Hispanic household increases the odds of being plumbing poor, and these predictors warp and woof through space. In considering who experiences the slow violence of infrastructural dysfunction, a geography that is simultaneously ignored and unevenly expressed in the United States, we argue that analyses of space and social difference are central to understanding household water insecurity and must be prioritized in the development of cross-comparable metrics and global measurement tools. Key Words: census microdata, hot spot analysis, household water insecurity, infrastructural geographies, IPUMS. 家户水资源不安全，是对人类健康与发展的全球危害，但既有的度量，却缺乏对地理不均和空间变异的系统性考量。我们于本文中引入"配管贫穷"一词，作为概念与方法论上的启发，以检视基础建设、空间与社会不均之间的相互交织本质。配管贫穷以双重观念进行理解：首先作为由根本上具有空间变异的社会关系所生产的物质与基础建设条件，再者，作为操作社会不均的空间探索之方法。运用数以百万计的人口普查纪录，我们将家户水资源安全拆解成单一的重要测量——完整家户配管的存在——以评估其空间和社会人口趋势。我们指认配管贫穷的显着热点（较平均值为高的地理群聚), 追溯其社会和空间变异，并揭露其根本上的种族化本质。我们的研究发现，在美国，配管贫穷在空间或社会上并非具任意性。反之，配管不全在空间上集中于美国的若干区域，并明显是种族化的：居住于美国印地安人或阿拉斯加原住民族、黑人或西裔的家户中，增加了配管不足的机会，且这些预测指标随着空间经纬而异。在考量什麽人经历基础建设功能障碍的慢性暴力中——一种在美国同时受到忽略并不均展现的地理——我们主张，空间与社会差异的分析，是理解家户水资源不安全的核心，并且必需在建立横跨可比较的度量和全球测量工具时给予优先顺序。关键词：人口普查微观数据，热点分析，家户水资源不安全，基础建设地理学，微观共享整合数据库（IPUMS）。 La inseguridad en la disponibilidad de agua potable para uso doméstico es una amenaza global para la salud y el desarrollo humano, aunque las métricas existentes adolecen de la falta de consideración sistemática de la desigualdad geográfica y la variación espacial. En este artículo presentamos la noción de pobreza de plomería como heurística conceptual y metodológica para examinar la naturaleza interseccional de la infraestructura, el espacio y la desigualdad social. La pobreza de plomería se entiende en un sentido dual: primero, como una condición material e infraestructural producida por las relaciones sociales que fundamentalmente varían a través del espacio, y, segundo, como una metodología que operacionaliza la exploración espacial de la desigualdad social. Basándonos en millones de registros censales, desnudamos la seguridad del agua para uso doméstico, hasta convertirla en una sencilla medida vital—la presencia de una cabal plomería en el hoga—para evaluar sus tendencias espaciales y sociodemográficas. Identificamos puntos calientes perceptibles (agrupamientos geográficos con valores más altos que el promedio) de pobreza de plomería, rastreamos su varianza social y espacial, y exponemos su naturaleza fundamentalmente racializada. Nuestro estudio establece que la pobreza de plomería en los Estados Unidos no es ni espacial ni socialmente aleatoria. En vez de eso, la plomería deficiente se presenta agrupada espacialmente en ciertas regiones del país y es claramente racializada: Vivir en un hogar de indígenas americanos o nativos de Alaska, negro o hispánico, incrementa las posibilidades de ser pobre en plomería, y tales predictores campean a través del espacio. Al considerar quién experimenta la lenta violencia de la disfunción estructural, una geografía que es simultáneamente ignorada y expresada de manera desigual en los Estados Unidos, consideramos que los análisis de espacio y de diferencia social son centrales para entender la inseguridad del agua para uso doméstico y debe tener prioridad en el desarrollo de métricas comparables y herramientas de medición de uso global. Palabras clave: análisis de puntos calientes, geografías infraestructurales, inseguridad de agua potable, microdatos censales, IPUMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore the first period of sustained decline in child mortality in the United States and provide estimates of the independent and combined effects of clean water and effective sewerage systems on under-5 mortality. Our case is Massachusetts, 1880–1920, when authorities developed a sewerage and water district in the Boston area. We find the two interventions were complementary and together account for approximately one-third of the decline in log child mortality during the 41 years. Our findings are relevant to the developing world and suggest that a piecemeal approach to infrastructure investments is unlikely to significantly improve child health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The substandard condition of wastewater systems in the US, accompanied by the lack of financial resources for renewal are hindering adequate operation and maintenance of deficient sewer systems. Information about current and future pipe condition, as well as information about the impact of possible pipe failures are an integral part of an efficient asset management program and can help stakeholders make the best decisions to prioritize rehabilitation and/or replacement projects. Typically, pipes in the worst structural conditions are prioritized and budgeted within the capital improvement project planning. To be able to predict future pipe conditions, many methods have been developed and successfully implemented that incorporate pipe inspection data to predict the future state of these assets. Additionally, methodologies exist for determining the consequences of pipe failures economically, socially, and environmentally. These methods have been incorporated into decision support systems (DSS) that help utility managers determine when to rehabilitate or replace their assets. DSS for trenchless pipe renewal allow utility managers to determine the most suitable method to renew their assets, given known defects in the pipe. The aim of this paper is to provide a review of risk management methods that allow pipeline managers to estimate likelihood of failure and quantify consequence of failure of sewer pipes. Additionally, an updated review of existing DSS for trenchless pipe rehabilitation is presented and analyzed. Finally, recommendations are made to improve existing methods to make the risk management process for trenchless rehabilitation decision making more efficient and practical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fat, oil and grease (FOG) blockages in sewer systems are a substantial problem in the United States. It has been estimated that over 50% of sewer overflows are a result of FOG blockages. In this work, a thorough laboratory study was undertaken to examine key variables that contribute to FOG deposit formation under controlled conditions. Physical and chemical properties and their interactions were evaluated and conditions that generated deposits that mimicked field FOG deposits were identified. It was found that 96 of the of 128 reaction conditions tested in the laboratory formed FOG deposits with similar physical and chemical characteristics as field FOG deposits. It was also found that FOG deposits can be created through fatty acid crystallization and not just saponification. Furthermore FOG deposits were found to be more complex than previously documented and contain free fatty acids, fatty acid metal salts, triacylglycerol's, diacylglycerol's and, monoacylglycerol's. Lastly it was found that FOG deposits that only contained saturated fatty acids were on average 2.1 times higher yield strength than deposits that contained unsaturated fatty acids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2013, the Boston Water and Sewer Commission (Commission) initiated a pilot study of 10 combined sewer overflow (CSO) structures to determine if current technology is reliable enough to measure overflow activation, duration and volume with confidence for public notification on the Commission's web site. A hydraulic model is being used for regulatory reporting for volume, but a more immediate system is needed for public notification. This paper describes an innovative method for understanding the regulator behavior and learning how to identify overflows by looking for repeatable patterns in plots of depths and velocities. The incoming and overflow lines in all the regulators were monitored with depth and velocity sensors. Plots of these depths and velocities, or scattergraphs, revealed patterns used to identify when overflows began and ended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After experiencing two back-to-back costly infrastructure catastrophes, the Warwick sewer Authority (WSA) could not endure another . Knowing that its main influent pipe, which runs beneath interstate Route 95 (i-95), was showing signs of age, WSA put its rehabilitation on the high-priority list. Although it took years to complete the project, WSA persevered and completed the job in 2015. This article tells the story of this project, including lessons learned, with the hope that other water utilities will choose the same proactive approach and avoid the financial and operational pains endured by WSA as a result of previous critical infrastructure failures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. We examined the factors that affect access to municipal water and sewer service for unincorporated communities relying on wells and septic tanks. Methods. Using a multisite case study design, we conducted in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 25 key informants from 3 unincorporated communities in Hoke, New Hanover, and Transylvania counties, North Carolina, July through September 2013. Interviewees included elected officials, health officials, utility providers, and community members. We coded the interviews in ATLAS.ti to identify common themes. Results. Financing for water and sewer service emerged as the predominant factor that influenced decisions to extend these services. Improved health emerged as a minor factor, suggesting that local officials may not place a high emphasis on the health benefits of extending public water and sewer services. Awareness of failed septic systems in communities can prompt city officials to extend sewer service to these areas; however, failed systems are often under-reported. Conclusions. Understanding the health costs and benefits of water and sewer extension and integrating these findings into the local decision-making process may help address disparities in access to municipal services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As public utility owners face increased budget constraints and greater expectations, alternative project delivery methods will increasingly be used to fast track projects, reduce costs, promote innovation, and ensure proper performance for water and wastewater facilities. The goals of public utility owners and U.S. federal tax regulations suggest why design-build-operate (DBO) projects have been selected over other procurement processes. The research reported in this paper contributes to the body of knowledge and benefits industry practitioners, by identifying tax regulations and best practices that when jointly considered improve the project delivery selection process, while enhancing risk-mitigation efforts on DBO water and wastewater projects. A procurement selection process using multiple-criteria decision and financial risk analyses is presented to select the most economically sustainable delivery method given each project's characteristics. A present value analysis establishes a range of values that takes into account variables that will potentially impact lifecycle costs. The selection of the procurement process and the contractor is based on best value where financial risks to the concerned government and contractor are mitigated through dynamic service fee agreements in accordance with current U.S. federal tax regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Actinidia chinensis Planch. var. deliciosa (A. Chev.) A. Chev. (green kiwifruit) is here reported as new to the flora of Arkansas and the United States. Establishment of A. chinensis var. deliciosa at the Saline County site potentially occurred through the transport and subsequent introduction of one or more seeds to the site via a sewer pump station. Photographs of Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa, along with a key to the three species of Actinidia currently known to occur outside of cultivation in the United States, are also included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Operation and maintenance (O&M) service contracts for water and sewer systems have increased considerably in the United States over the last 20 years. Successful O&M contract establishment requires a reasonable estimation of the O&M service contract coupled with a reliable risk-hedging mechanism, such as a ceiling agreement. Because the accurate valuation of an O&M contract is substantially influenced by the future O&M cost, which is subject to the future performance of the system, it is crucial that contracting parties develop realistic O&M cost scenarios based on a sound deterioration model. This study provides a real option-based methodology for the valuation of O&M contracts by modeling future O&M cost scenarios using deterioration models. Using sensitivity analyses, this study also investigates how surrounding conditions and negotiation options could affect the valuation of O&M contracts. The proposed methodology is expected to assist contracting parties in developing a fair and attractive O&M service contract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the laws affecting wastewater treatment infrastructure in the U.S. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, commonly known as the Clean Water Act (CWA), requires permits for the discharge of any pollutant during wastewater treatment. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that in the U.S., nearly 900 billion gallons of water a year are lost to sewer overflows due to obsolete design and insufficient capacity.

In this article the author discusses the development of sewage system in the U.S. According to the author, agricultural lands preservation plans controls development through the availability or unavailability of government services such as water, sewage treatment, and electricity supplies. The author says that the decisions of the Land Use Board of Appeals (LUBA) make utilities, including sewer lines, factors in the determination of urban development.

The article presents the author's comments on several research papers, resources and developments related to the topic of sewers, in context of urban planning in the U.S. The author discusses an observation by Jim Hall, former planning director of Clackamas County, Oregon, on growth management. Lawsuits like Robinson v. City of Boulder and Dateline Builders v. City of Santa Rosa, are also explained by the author.

The paper presents the geotechnical properties for the lands in which water pipelines and outlets are situated. Following the rules of good practice, a good geotechnical study provides information to inform and support final design decisions and construction specification. The boreholes were made by means of Nordmayer Wacker RHF tool, RKS system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the role of the federal government in the regulation of municipal finance markets to prevent municipalities from running into the same financial problems encountered in the development of sewer system in Jefferson County, Alabama. It focuses on the systemic problems in municipal finance markets including the preponderance of negotiated pricing rather than competitive pricing, the role of unregulated market participants and the failures in the variable-rate demand obligation (VRDO) and auction-rate security (ARS) markets. Also discussed are the limited powers of the Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board (MSRB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) over the municipal securities.

Proper nitrogen (N) management as it relates to crop yield has become a critical concern due to the environmental impacts of excessive N fertilizer application. This study monitored 36 sites within the Lake Bloomington, Illinois, watershed on a weekly basis to determine nitrate-N concentrations from various surface water sources. Average nitrate-N concentrations for the period 1993 to 2002 revealed the following: agricultural production drainage tiles, 17.0 mg/L; creek water (Money Creek tributary), 12.0 mg/L; organic agriculture drainage tiles, 11.4 mg/L; surface water runoff, 6.6 mg/L; wooded pasture drainage tiles, 1.6 mg/L; and rainwater, 1.2 mg/L. In addition, as creek water passed through a small municipality ("urban effect"), its concentration of nitrate-N dropped by an average of 0.6 mg/L. An initial watershed resident survey and an annual N fertilizer use survey were conducted to ascertain common N management practices of agricultural producers within the watershed. The mean expected corn grain yield was 9845 kg/ha and the median N fertilizer application rate was between 169 and 202 kg N/ha. On average, 54.5% of the N fertilizer in the watershed was applied in the fall, 32.5% was applied in the spring before planting, and 12.7% was applied after planting. Within the watershed, 64% nonfarming residents perceived agricultural crop production as having the greatest negative impact on water quality compared with only 15.6% of those actively engaged in farming. Knowledge from this study can be used to develop recommendations for sound N management practices within sensitive watershed regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Hydrologically abandoned caves on tributaries of the Upper Cumberland River, Tennessee, USA record a wave of river incision that advanced up the drainage basin in the Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. Geomorphic and geologic evidence suggests that incision occurred as a migrating knickpoint generated by sudden base-level lowering. The passage of a knickpoint up the Cumberland River tributaries was modeled as a perturbation to steady-state incision according to the stream power law E = kQ m S n and tested using dated incision events recorded in cave sediments. Knickpoint migration rates generated by this model were 0.1–0.18m/yr over the entire stream network, and 4.0m/yr for the mainstem Cumberland River channel. The ratio m/n =0.79 was consistent with previously published parameters; however, the values of m =1.91 and n =2.39 were much higher than those reported in previous field studies. These results suggest the stream power model may be used to model knickpoint migration in the study area, provided values for the constants m and n are larger. This may be due to the influence of fluviokarst, where surface drainage is interrupted due to diversion into the underlying karst aquifer. Field measurements of channel and basin geometry in fluviokarstic tributaries to the Upper Cumberland River show (1) a stronger variance between channel slope and discharge; (2) a nonlinear relationship between discharge and drainage area; and (3) stream width to be nearly invariant, as opposed to non-karst watersheds. Because the stream power model relies heavily on the substitution of discharge for drainage area, the behavior of channel incision and knickpoint migration in fluviokarst may differ substantially from that of non-karst channels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article offers information on the issues surrounding aging water and sewer utility system infrastructures in the United States. It is posed that utility systems that were once disregarded are now the concern in many urban communities which are planning to revitalize and rebuild downtown areas. Relative to this, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (NYCDEP) encountered this problem when they began planning to enhance their aging water and sewer infrastructure assets. The NYCDEP has implemented a prioritization and risk mitigation program to facilitate an efficient upgrading of its sewer utility systems and infrastructures.

The article focuses on the impact of biofuel from waste grease on power plant fuel consumption in the U.S. It is stated that developing reliable sources for renewable energy has become a major focus as the cost of imported oil continue to rise. One available source that can affect both the demand in renewable energy and the demand in water comes in the form of a problem needing a solution in municipal sanitary sewer systems. Meanwhile, all major population areas within the U.S. are experiencing some degree of problem due to the accumulation of animal and vegetable fats, oils, and grease (FOG) in the sanitary sewer system.

The article discusses the collaboration of water supply industry and plumbing industry to protect the water systems from the return of used water back into the public system in the U.S. It is stated that the two sectors share the responsibility of supplying potable water to their customers by implementing, administering and maintaining ongoing backflow prevention and cross-connection control programs. It is believed that if proper attention is given to these programs, which protect public water systems from hazards that originate from customer's homes and from temporary connections, the contamination of the public system could be prevented. In addition, plumbing codes are crucial in ensuring the safety of water supplied to the consumers and proper disposal of wastewater.

A sewer main serving a large municipal wastewater system ruptured, discharging approximately 3,000,000 gallons (11,355,000L) of raw human sewage into a multi-branched tidal creek estuary along the US East Coast. The biochemical oxygen demand caused severe hypoxia in the system, causing a large fish kill. The sewage load led to high fecal coliform bacteria concentrations in the creek (maximum of 270,000CFU 100ml−1), which declined in an approximate logarithmic manner over the first few days. The spill caused elevated sediment fecal coliform bacteria and enterococcus counts that declined much more gradually than water column counts. Persistence of relatively high concentrations of fecal indicator bacteria in sediments for several weeks after the spill suggests that sediment sampling should be included in response to major sewage spills. The high concentration of nutrients in the spilled sewage led to several algal blooms. However, nutrient concentrations in the water column declined rapidly, demonstrating the value of conserving marshes because of their pollutant filtration function. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Drainages are important features of semiarid landscapes because they are areas where surface water, groundwater, and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems converge. Management of these critical ecohydrological systems requires a sound understanding of surface water-groundwater interactions. At the basin- to landscape-scale, drainage density, location, and channel characteristics are formed upon a geomorphic and geologic template that limit where and how surface water-groundwater interactions occur. At smaller scales, semiarid surface water-groundwater interactions exhibit a high degree of temporal and spatial variability that links directly to biogeochemical characteristics and ecosystem dynamics. In this paper, we review key features of interactions in semiarid drainages, and supplement the discussion with new examples from the American southwest. We conclude by presenting a series of alternative conceptual models that describe surface water-groundwater interactions within semiarid drainages and highlight areas for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We present a new deglacial meltwater drainage chronology for the North American ice-sheet complex using a 3D glacial systems model calibrated against a large set of paleo-proxies. Results indicate that North America was responsible for a significant fraction of mwp1-a, with order 1.5dSv or larger (100 year mean) peak discharges into both the Gulf of Mexico and the Eastern Atlantic and less than 1dSv into the Arctic Ocean. Our most significant result concerns discharge into the Arctic Ocean. The largest total discharge into the Arctic Ocean (ensemble mean values of 1.0–2.2dSv) occurs during the onset of the Younger Dryas. The large majority of this discharge is locally sourced with reduction of the Keewatin ice dome being the largest contributor. Given that the only outlet from the Arctic Basin at this time was via Fram Strait into the Greenland–Iceland–Norwegian Seas, we hypothesize that this pulse was the trigger for the re-organization of thermohaline circulation that is thought to have been responsible for the Younger Dryas cold interval. In contradistinction with past inferences and subject to the imperfectly constrained ice-margin chronology, we also find that the Northwest outlet likely dominated much of the post drainage of Lake Agassiz. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In a storm sewer system, the catch basin is the interface between surface runoff and the sewer. Responding to the need to improve the quality of stormwater from urban areas and transportation facilities, and spurred by Phase I and II Stormwater Rules from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, several companies market catch basin inserts as best management practices for urban water quality management. However, little data have been collected under controlled tests that indicate the pollutant removal efficiency of these inserts when the inflow is near what can be expected to occur in the field. A stormwater simulator was constructed to test inserts under controlled and replicable conditions. The inserts were tested for removal efficiency of total suspended solids (TSS) and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) at an inflow rate of 757 to 814 L/min, with influent pollutant concentrations of 225 mg/L TSS and 30 mg/L TPH. These conditions are similar to stormwater runoff from small commercial sites in the southeastern United States. Results from the tests indicate that at the test flowrate and pollutant concentration, average TSS removal efficiencies ranged from 11 to 42% and, for TPH, the removal efficiency ranged from 10 to 19%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes whether the maximum extent practicable pollutant reduction standard is the exclusive statutory standard under the U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) for discharges from a municipal separate storm sewer system (MS4). Under the CWA, municipal storm water discharge permits include provisions that control discharges both into and from the MS4. MS4 permits are required to effectively prohibit non-storm water discharges into the conveyance system. And when the discharges are from the storm sewer system, MS4 permits are required to reduce pollutants to the maximum extent practicable level.

This article examines the effectiveness of combined sewer systems in managing growing volumes of sewage and stormwater runoff in the U.S. When combined sewer systems were introduced in 1855, they were hailed as a vast improvement over urban cesspool ditches that ran along city streets and spilled over when it rained. These networks of underground pipes were designed to dry out streets by collecting rainwater runoff, domestic sewage from newly invented flush toilets, and industrial wastewater all in the same pipe. However, when too much stormwater is added to the flow of raw sewage, the result is frequently an overflow. These combined sewer overflows have become the focus of a debate regarding the best technique to manage increasing volumes of sewage and stormwater runoff.

A "combined sewer system" is a series of pipes and related equipment that gather and transport through the same pipes both stormwater and industrial/domestic wastewaters. Most combined sewer systems are old, many dating back to the nineteenth century. As the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) increases its focus on cleaning up the environmental problems in rivers and harbors, it is necessary to address the historical contamination resulting from combined sewer discharges of industrial waste. Because many of these combined sewer systems are still discharging, the EPA must address ongoing contamination problems from these systems before implementing remedies to resolve legacy contamination issues. This article explores the nature of combined sewer system contamination problems and the role of faulty operation and maintenance in the creation of these problems. The legal liabilities of combined sewer systems and their responsibilities in the cleanup process are studied. A case study compares how several combined sewer systems throughout the United States have responded to the issues. Finally, an assessment of the Passaic River Restoration Initiative suggests a combined government/ private "potentially responsible parties" approach toward resolving these complex legal and technical issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the efforts to build a comprehensive sewage system in Baltimore, Maryland during the late 19th century to the early 20th century. Amount of time it took to pass a referendum to build sewers; Funding problems; Stench and diseases from poor sewerage systems; Level of involvement of the local government in the development of a sewer system.

Investigates the occurrence of emerging contaminants in domestic waste water effluents and their fate during subsequent ground water recharge at two water reuse facilities in the southwestern U.S. employing surface spreading basins. Partial list of pharmaceuticals observed in the aquatic environment; Bulk organic removal; Results of pharmaceuticals in treated waste water effluents and corresponding ground water monitoring wells at both study sites.

This paper summarizes the design of passive automatic flushing systems installed in the City of Cambridge's storm and sanitary sewer system tributary to the Alewife Brook as part of a $75 million sewer separation program. Grit and debris deposition is severe in the existing combined sewers, storm drains, and sanitary trunk sewers due to the flat topography of the area. This condition is exacerbated by hydraulic constraints imposed on the system's outlet by the Alewife Brook (shallow stream) and downstream sanitary siphons (again because of the Alewife Brook). The use of pumps to lift flows from sewers and drains to permit self-scouring velocities is prohibitively expensive. To overcome this problem, five automated flushing systems using quick opening (hydraulic operated) gates discharging collected stormwater were constructed in conjunction with downstream collector grit pits covering a distance of 1,604 m for storm drain pipes ranging from 1.4 m circular to 1.2 m by 1.8 m rectangular. New 450 and 600 mm sanitary trunk sewers, 561 m long, will be flushed daily by two flushing systems using spent filtrate water from Cambridge's water treatment plant recently constructed nearby. The flushing systems are sized to achieve wave velocity of 1 m/s at the end of the flushing segment. The flush vault volumes range from 11 to 40 m[SUP3] for the storm drain systems and 6 m[SUP3] for the sanitary system. Construction was completed in May 2002 and functional testing of the flushing systems is in progress. Partial test results are reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the adverse health effects of sewage sludge on residents in the U.S. Information on the sewage sludge; Methodology of the study; Results of the study.

Focuses on the high concentration of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and nonylphenols in the sewage sludge spread on land in the U.S. Challenges of wastewater treatment; Drawbacks of risk assessment; Information on brominated flame retardants.

Investigates the alleged health incidents associated with the land application of sewage sludge in the U.S. Treatment processes of wastewater; Estimated volume of sewage sludge generated by the U.S.; Primary options for sludge disposal; Information on the regulatory framework for sewage disposal.

Discusses the contribution of the health care industry to the potential public health and environmental impact of sewage sludge production and disposal in the U.S. Waste discharges of health care facilities; Information on the precautionary principle; Solutions to the problems posed by sewage sludge.

Relates several stories from people who were affected by sewage sludge spreading on land in the U.S. Effects of sewage sludge on human health.

Studies the propaganda model of communication of the Water Environment Federation (WEF) in the U.S. and its effort to rename sewage sludge as biosolids. Information on the book 'Toxic Sludge Is Good For You'; Goal of the biosolid campaign of WEF; Possible reason for selecting the term biosolids to replace sewage sludge; Responses of people to the book.

Explains the reasons for recommending a federal ban of sewage sludge spreading on land in the U.S. Problem with the sewage disposal system; Solution to the problem; Essentials of a sewer avoidance plan.

This article addresses two related questions. To what extent did cities and towns provide African Americans adequate water and sewer services during the era of Jim Crow ( 1880-1925)? What motivated local governments to allow African Americans access to water and sewerage services? In light of the treatment African Americans received from state and local governments in areas such as education and police protection, it seems odd that blacks would have received any water and sewer service. Two explanations considered focus on fear of epidemic disease, and variation in the extent of residential segregation over time and across cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The understanding of sewer deterioration mechanisms helps asset managers in developing deterioration models to estimate whether sewers have deteriorated sufficiently for likely collapses. While an accurate deterioration model is a significant component of an infrastructure management system, research in the area of deterioration modeling of sewer systems in the United States is still in its infancy. Research in the area of highways has matured and has become the basis for studies in sewer systems. Modeling the deterioration of highway systems involves methods that vary in complexity from Markov-chains-based models to econometric models. This paper presents the use of Markov-chains-based models in conjunction with nonlinear optimization for extending infrastructure management modeling to sewer systems. Modeling the structural condition of sewers using the Markov-chains-based model has its own challenges. This paper discusses the problems encountered in developing deterioration models for sewer management systems and suggests some possible improvements for deterioration modeling of combined sewer systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the regulation proposed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency on sanitary sewer overflows (SSO). What causes SSO; Sewage contents of SSO which are potential threat to public health; Standard permit conditions for owners of sanitary sewer collection systems; Basic requirements of the Capacity, Management, Operation and Maintenance legislation.

Abstract This paper gives the reader a background in the history of pressure sewer technology. Common applications are described, and some example case studies are provided. Also discussed are several littleknown applications that are presently "secrets" to the average practitioner. These less wellknown applications could be a gold mine of ideas for developers, regulators, and engineers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the urban wastewater management in the United States. Introduction of a centralized wastewater management; Usefulness of combined-sewer system in transporting storm water and other household industrial wastewater to disposal location; Socio-economic reasons for the implementation of centralized water-carriage sewer system.