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The paper deals with the scientific analysis in the sphere of social and pedagogical education and with the professional self-development of future teachers. In the paper the structure of the professional development that introduces the interconnection of the four members is presented: self-identification, self-esteem, self-determination, self-government. Attention is focused on the integrity of the system of self-development of a social pedagogue as a competent specialist, who also possesses a set of general culture of personality with professionally significant qualities. The theoretical bases of social and pedagogical support, its essence and content are considered. The role of practice as an integrative component of the professional development of a specialist is emphasized. The necessity of introducing the self-development trajectory in the educational process for successful professional formation of a future social teacher is acknowledged. The paper is intended for researchers and educators involved in the training of future social pedagogues.

Objectives. To identify relationships between US states' COVID-19 in-person activity limitation and economic support policies and drug overdose deaths among working-age adults in 2020. Methods. We used county-level data on 140 435 drug overdoses among adults aged 25 to 64 years during January 2019 to December 2020 from the National Vital Statistics System and data on states' COVID-19 policies from the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker to assess US trends in overdose deaths by sex in 3138 counties. Results. Policies limiting in-person activities significantly increased, whereas economic support policies significantly decreased, overdose rates. A 1-unit increase in policies restricting activities predicted a 15% average monthly increase in overdose rates for men (incident rate ratio [IRR] = 1.15; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.09, 1.20) and a 14% increase for women (IRR = 1.14; 95% CI = 1.09, 1.20). A 1-unit increase in economic support policies predicted a 3% average monthly decrease for men (IRR = 0.97; 95% CI = 0.95, 1.00) and a 4% decrease for women (IRR = 0.96; 95% CI = 0.93, 0.99). All states' policy combinations are predicted to have increased drug-poisoning mortality. Conclusions. The economic supports that states enacted were insufficient to fully mitigate the adverse relationship between activity limitations and drug overdoses. (Am J Public Health. 2024;114(7):714–722. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2024.307621) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy PointsThe erosion of electoral democracy in the United States in recent decades may have contributed to the high and rising working‐age mortality rates, which predate the COVID‐19 pandemic.Eroding electoral democracy in a US state was associated with higher working‐age mortality from homicide, suicide, and especially from drug poisoning and infectious disease.State and federal efforts to strengthen electoral democracy, such as banning partisan gerrymandering, improving voter enfranchisement, and reforming campaign finance laws, could potentially avert thousands of deaths each year among working‐age adults. Context: Working‐age mortality rates are high and rising in the United States, an alarming fact that predates the COVID‐19 pandemic. Although several reasons for the high and rising rates have been hypothesized, the potential role of democratic erosion has been overlooked. This study examined the association between electoral democracy and working‐age mortality and assessed how economic, behavioral, and social factors may have contributed to it. Methods: We used the State Democracy Index (SDI), an annual summary of each state's electoral democracy from 2000 to 2018. We merged the SDI with annual age‐adjusted mortality rates for adults 25–64 years in each state. Models estimated the association between the SDI and working‐age mortality (from all causes and six specific causes) within states, adjusting for political party control, safety net generosity, union coverage, immigrant population, and stable characteristics of states. We assessed whether economic (income, unemployment), behavioral (alcohol consumption, sleep), and social (marriage, violent crime, incarceration) factors accounted for the association. Findings: Increasing electoral democracy in a state from a moderate level (defined as the third quintile of the SDI distribution) to a high level (defined as the fifth quintile) was associated with an estimated 3.2% and 2.7% lower mortality rate among working‐age men and women, respectively, over the next year. Increasing electoral democracy in all states from the third to the fifth quintile of the SDI distribution may have resulted in 20,408 fewer working‐age deaths in 2019. The democracy–mortality association mainly reflected social factors and, to a lesser extent, health behaviors. Increasing electoral democracy in a state was mostly strongly associated with lower mortality from drug poisoning and infectious diseases, followed by reductions in homicide and suicide. Conclusions: Erosion of electoral democracy is a threat to population health. This study adds to growing evidence that electoral democracy and population health are inextricably linked. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy PointsThis Perspective connects the dots between the polarization in US states' policy contexts and the divergence in population health across states.Key interlocking forces that fueled this polarization are the political investments of wealthy individuals and organizations and the nationalization of US political parties.Key policy priorities for the next decade include ensuring all Americans have opportunities for economic security, deterring behaviors that kill or injure hundreds of thousands of Americans each year, and protecting voting rights and democratic functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of the relationship between income inequality and life expectancy often speculate about the role of policy, but direct empirical research is limited. Drawing on the neo-materialist perspective, we examine whether the longitudinal association between income inequality and life expectancy is mediated and moderated by policy liberalism in U.S. states (2000–2014). More liberal policy contexts are characterized by greater efforts to regulate the economy, redistribute income, and protect vulnerable groups and lesser efforts to penalize deviant social behavior. We find that state-level income inequality is inversely associated with policy liberalism and life expectancy. The association between income inequality and life expectancy was not mediated by policy liberalism but was moderated by it. The association is attenuated in states with more liberal policy contexts, supporting the neo-materialist perspective. This finding illustrates how states like New York and California (with liberal policy contexts) can exhibit high income inequality and high life expectancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The goal of this study was to estimate how state preemption laws that prohibit local authority to raise the minimum wage or mandate paid sick leave have contributed to working-age mortality from suicide, homicide, drug overdose, alcohol poisoning, and transport accidents.Methods: County-by-quarter death counts by cause and sex for 1999-2019 were regressed on minimum wage levels and hours of paid sick-leave requirements, controlling for time-varying covariates and place- and time-specific fixed effects. The model coefficients were then used to predict expected reductions in mortality if the preemption laws were repealed. Analyses were conducted during January 2022-April 2022.Results: Paid sick-leave requirements were associated with lower mortality. These associations were statistically significant for suicide and homicide deaths among men and for homicide and alcohol-related deaths among women. Mortality may decline by more than 5% in large central metropolitan counties currently constrained by preemption laws if they were able to mandate a 40-hour annual paid sick-leave requirement.Conclusions: State legislatures' preemption of local authority to enact health-promoting legislation may be contributing to the worrisome trends in external causes of death. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rise in working-age mortality rates in the United States in recent decades largely reflects stalled declines in cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality alongside rising mortality from alcohol-induced causes, suicide, and drug poisoning; and it has been especially severe in some U.S. states. Building on recent work, this study examined whether U.S. state policy contexts may be a central explanation. We modeled the associations between working-age mortality rates and state policies during 1999 to 2019. We used annual data from the 1999–2019 National Vital Statistics System to calculate state-level age-adjusted mortality rates for deaths from all causes and from CVD, alcohol-induced causes, suicide, and drug poisoning among adults ages 25–64 years. We merged that data with annual state-level data on eight policy domains, such as labor and taxes, where each domain was scored on a 0–1 conservative-to-liberal continuum. Results show that the policy domains were associated with working-age mortality. More conservative marijuana policies and more liberal policies on the environment, gun safety, labor, economic taxes, and tobacco taxes in a state were associated with lower mortality in that state. Especially strong associations were observed between certain domains and specific causes of death: between the gun safety domain and suicide mortality among men, between the labor domain and alcohol-induced mortality, and between both the economic tax and tobacco tax domains and CVD mortality. Simulations indicate that changing all policy domains in all states to a fully liberal orientation might have saved 171,030 lives in 2019, while changing them to a fully conservative orientation might have cost 217,635 lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy PointsExplanations for the troubling trend in US life expectancy since the 1980s should be grounded in the dynamic changes in policies and political landscapes. Efforts to reverse this trend and put US life expectancy on par with other high‐income countries must address those factors.Of prime importance are the shifts in the balance of policymaking power in the United States, the polarization of state policy contexts, and the forces behind those changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy PointsChanges in US state policies since the 1970s, particularly after 2010, have played an important role in the stagnation and recent decline in US life expectancy.Some US state policies appear to be key levers for improving life expectancy, such as policies on tobacco, labor, immigration, civil rights, and the environment.US life expectancy is estimated to be 2.8 years longer among women and 2.1 years longer among men if all US states enjoyed the health advantages of states with more liberal policies, which would put US life expectancy on par with other high‐income countries. Context: Life expectancy in the United States has increased little in previous decades, declined in recent years, and become more unequal across US states. Those trends were accompanied by substantial changes in the US policy environment, particularly at the state level. State policies affect nearly every aspect of people's lives, including economic well‐being, social relationships, education, housing, lifestyles, and access to medical care. This study examines the extent to which the state policy environment may have contributed to the troubling trends in US life expectancy. Methods: We merged annual data on life expectancy for US states from 1970 to 2014 with annual data on 18 state‐level policy domains such as tobacco, environment, tax, and labor. Using the 45 years of data and controlling for differences in the characteristics of states and their populations, we modeled the association between state policies and life expectancy, and assessed how changes in those policies may have contributed to trends in US life expectancy from 1970 through 2014. Findings: Results show that changes in life expectancy during 1970‐2014 were associated with changes in state policies on a conservative‐liberal continuum, where more liberal policies expand economic regulations and protect marginalized groups. States that implemented more conservative policies were more likely to experience a reduction in life expectancy. We estimated that the shallow upward trend in US life expectancy from 2010 to 2014 would have been 25% steeper for women and 13% steeper for men had state policies not changed as they did. We also estimated that US life expectancy would be 2.8 years longer among women and 2.1 years longer among men if all states enjoyed the health advantages of states with more liberal policies. Conclusions: Understanding and reversing the troubling trends and growing inequalities in US life expectancy requires attention to US state policy contexts, their dynamic changes in recent decades, and the forces behind those changes. Changes in US political and policy contexts since the 1970s may undergird the deterioration of Americans' health and longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United States currently ranks last among high-income countries for life expectancy. Since 2014, U.S. life expectancy has declined. By now, these alarming trends are well known to researchers, the public, and policymakers. Nevertheless, there is no consensus among researchers on the causes of the trends, and there has been no serious and effective bipartisan effort to solve the problem. The dominant narrative has implicated Americans' behaviors, such as smoking, illicit drug use, and suicide; yet, this narrative is misguided and counterproductive. It also exonerates the key structural drivers of behaviors and health, namely the U.S. policy context and the outsized influence of corporations and big donors on those policies. The U.S. policy context has changed dramatically since the 1970s, particularly at the state level. State policies have hyperpolarized along partisan lines. These changes have likely had a profound impact on nearly every aspect of Americans ' lives, cutting short many of them. Consequently, this Essay argues that state policies increasingly affect life and death in the United States. It raises concerns about how the polarization of state policies will further deteriorate the health of many Americans, It points to three significant forces behind the polarization and the growing importance of state policy contexts on Americans ' lives--(1) New Federalism; (2) the new type of state preemption laws; and (3) the emergence of organizations, such as the American Legislative Exchange Council, through which corporations and big donors influence policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy PointsPreemption is a legal doctrine whereby a higher level of government may limit or even eliminate the power of a lower level of government to regulate a certain issue. Some state legislatures are using preemption with increasing regularity to thwart local policies that have the potential to reduce health inequities.Despite recent trends, preemption is not inherently adversarial to public health, equity, or good governance but rather reflects its wielder's goals and values. Existing frameworks for assessing preemption fail to reconcile its potential to both advance and hinder health equity.An equity‐first preemption framework can facilitate case‐by‐case assessments of whether preemption is likely to worsen inequities or whether it is an appropriate response to address existing inequities. Robust empirical evidence is needed to develop and operationalize such a framework. Context: Due to the inequitable distribution of various social determinants of health, disparities in health and well‐being are tied to where an individual lives. In the United States, a zip code often better predicts a person's health than their genetic code. As communities seek to redress these inequities, many find that, due to state preemption, their zip code also dictates their ability to pursue more equitable laws through local government action. Preemption is a legal doctrine whereby a higher level of government may limit or even eliminate the power of a lower level of government to regulate a certain issue. Methods: We conducted a literature review to survey existing scholarship about the effects of preemption on public health and health equity using online databases such as PubMed, WestLaw, and Google Scholar. We also cohosted a series of cross‐sector, interdisciplinary research convenings with preemption, public health, and equity experts. Based on our findings, this article reviews the role of law and policy in the genesis of health inequities and highlights how preemption has both created and alleviated such inequities. We demonstrate how a normative framework rooted in redressing health inequities can advance a more just approach to preemption and outline a research agenda to support future action. Findings: Law and policy have been central to creating health inequities, and while those same tools can promote health equity, some state legislatures are using preemption with increasing regularity to thwart local policies that may improve health and equity. Nevertheless, preemption is not inherently adversarial to public health, equity, or good governance. Preemptive federal civil rights laws, for example, have countered government‐sanctioned discrimination. However, existing frameworks for assessing preemption fail to reconcile its potential to both advance and hinder health equity. Conclusions: Shortcomings in existing preemption frameworks demonstrate the need for new approaches to elevate equity as a central consideration in assessing preemption. We propose the development of an equity‐first preemption framework to establish evidence‐based criteria for assessing when preemption will enhance or inhibit equity and a research agenda for developing the evidence necessary to inform and operationalize the framework. An equity‐first reconceptualization of preemption can help ensure that local governments remain places of innovation while allowing states and the federal government to block local actions that are likely to create or perpetuate inequities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adult mortality varies greatly by educational attainment. Explanations have focused on actions and choices made by individuals, neglecting contextual factors such as economic and policy environments. This study takes an important step toward explaining educational disparities in U.S. adult mortality and their growth since the mid-1980s by examining them across U.S. states. We analyzed data on adults aged 45-89 in the 1985-2011 National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality File (721,448 adults; 225,592 deaths). We compared educational disparities in mortality in the early twenty-first century (1999-2011) with those of the late twentieth century (1985-1998) for 36 large-sample states, accounting for demographic covariates and birth state. We found that disparities vary considerably by state: in the early twenty-first century, the greater risk of death associated with lacking a high school credential, compared with having completed at least one year of college, ranged from 40 % in Arizona to 104 % in Maryland. The size of the disparities varies across states primarily because mortality associated with low education varies. Between the two periods, higher-educated adult mortality declined to similar levels across most states, but lower-educated adult mortality decreased, increased, or changed little, depending on the state. Consequently, educational disparities in mortality grew over time in many, but not all, states, with growth most common in the South and Midwest. The findings provide new insights into the troubling trends and disparities in U.S. adult mortality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several recent studies have documented an alarming upward trend in disability and functional limitations among US adults. In this study, we draw on the sociomedical Disablement Process framework to produce up-to-date estimates of the trends and identify key social and medical precursors of the trends. Using data on US adults aged 45–64 in the 2002–2016 National Health Interview Surveys, we estimate parametric and semiparametric models of disability and functional limitations as a function of interview time. We also determine the impact of socioeconomic resources, health behaviors, and health conditions on the trends. Our results show increasing prevalence of disability and functional limitations. These trends reflect the net result of complex countervailing forces, some associated with increases in functioning problems (unfavorable trends in economic well-being, especially income, and psychological distress) while other factors have suppressed the growth of functioning problems (favorable trends in educational attainment and some health behaviors, such as smoking and alcohol use). The results underscore that disability prevention must expand beyond medical interventions to include fundamental social factors and be focused on preventing or delaying the onset of chronic health problems and functional limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand the education-mortality association among U.S. adults, recent studies have documented its national functional form. However, the functional form of education-mortality relationship may vary across geographic contexts. The four U.S. Census regions differ considerably in their social and economic policies, employment opportunities, income levels, and other factors that may affect how education lowers the risk of mortality. Thus, we documented regional differences in the functional form of the education-mortality association and examined the role of employment and income in accounting for regional differences. We used data on non-Hispanic white adults (2,981,672, person years) aged 45-84 in the 2000-2009 National Health Interview Survey, with Linked Mortality File through 2011 (37,598 deaths) and estimated discrete-time hazard models. The functional form of education and adult mortality was best characterized by credentialism in the Midwest, Northeast, and for Western men. For Western women, the association was linear, consistent with the human capital model. In the South, we observed a combination of mechanisms, with mortality risk declining with each year of schooling and a step change with high school graduation, followed by steeper decline thereafter. Our work adds to the increasing body of research that stresses the importance of contexts in shaping the education-mortality relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the Sunshine Act, pharmaceutical and product industry payments to physicians are reported in a public database. We sought to characterize payments received by pediatricians in the first full year of disclosures in 2014. We used the National Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services Open Payment files to identify pediatricians who received payments. Payment characteristics were stratified, and descriptive statistical analysis was performed, including mean, median, and ranges of payments. Between January 1, 2014, and December 31, 2014, 35 697 pediatricians received payments amounting to $30 031 960. General pediatricians received the majority of payments (71%). Median payment was $15 (interquartile range = $12-$24), mostly in the form of noncash items and services (84%). Significant diversity was observed in median payments among specialty providers. In conclusion, 42% of US pediatricians received industry payments in 2014. These data provide a foundation for future research regarding the influence of the Sunshine Act on pediatric clinical practices [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. To examine how disparities in adult disability by educational attainment vary across US states. Methods. We used the nationally representative data of more than 6 million adults aged 45 to 89 years in the 2010-2014 American Community Survey. We defined disability as difficulty with activities of daily living. We categorized education as low (less than high school), mid (high school or some college), or high (bachelor's or higher). We estimated age-standardized disability prevalence by educational attainment and state. We assessed whether the variation in disability across states occurs primarily among low-educated adults and whether it reflects the socioeconomic resources of low-educated adults and their surrounding contexts. Results. Disparities in disability by education vary markedly across states--from a 20 percentage point disparity in Massachusetts to a 12-point disparity in Wyoming. Disparities vary across states mainly because the prevalence of disability among loweducated adults varies across states. Personal and contextual socioeconomic resources of low-educated adults account for 29% of the variation. Results. Disparities in disability by education vary markedly across states--from a 20 percentage point disparity in Massachusetts to a 12-point disparity in Wyoming. Disparities vary across states mainly because the prevalence of disability among loweducated adults varies across states. Personal and contextual socioeconomic resources of low-educated adults account for 29% of the variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing disparities in adult mortality across U.S. states point to the importance of assessing disparities in other domains of health. Here, we estimate state-level differences in disability, and draw on the WHO socio-ecological framework to assess the role of ecological factors in explaining these differences. Our study is based on data from 5.5 million adults aged 25–94 years in the 2010–2014 waves of the American Community Survey. Disability is defined as difficulty with mobility, independent living, self-care, vision, hearing, or cognition. We first provide estimates of age-standardized and age-specific disability prevalence by state. We then estimate multilevel models to assess how states' socioeconomic and policy contexts shape the probability of having a disability. Age-standardized disability prevalence differs markedly by state, from 12.9% in North Dakota and Minnesota to 23.5% in West Virginia. Disability was lower in states with stronger economic output, more income equality, longer histories of tax credits for low-income workers, and higher cigarette taxes (for middle-age women), net of individuals' socio-demographic characteristics. States' socioeconomic and policy contexts appear particularly important for older adults. Findings underscore the importance of socio-ecological influences on disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines whether the longitudinal association between income inequality and life expectancy was mediated and moderated by policy liberalism in U.S. states from 2000 to 2014. It shows that state-level income inequality is inversely associated with policy liberalism and life expectancy. The association between income inequality and life expectancy is attenuated in states with more liberal policy contexts, such as New York and California.

Objectives. To examine whether the share of pharmaceutical industry funds allocated to patient advocacy organizations (PAOs) is disproportionately large in the United States relative to other industrialized countries and to compare pharmaceutical companies' disclosure practices across industrialized countries. Methods. We examined funding of PAOs among the 10 largest pharmaceutical companies in 2016. We compared funding allocated to organizations across 8 large industrialized countries and pharmaceutical companies' disclosure practices in each country. Results. Only 6 of the 10 largest pharmaceutical companies disclosed their financial transactions with PAOs in the United States. All 10 companies disclosed transactions in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, with varying levels of disclosure in other countries. In 2016, the 6 companies that disclosed transactions in the United States allocated 74% of their patient advocacy funding ($88 million) in the United States. Conclusions. The disproportionate funding of US PAOs in the absence of any disclosure requirements suggests that the United States should consider adoption of regulatory actions to enhance the transparency of relationships between the pharmaceutical industry and PAOs, and to ensure the integrity of public health decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: We examine whether women's risks of having metabolic syndrome (MetS) at pre/early-menopausal baseline, and of developing MetS after baseline, are associated with childhood and adult socioeconomic statuses (SESs); and whether the associations are mediated by adult reproductive, economic, behavioral, and psychosocial factors. Method: Using data on white and black women collected prospectively for 12 years in the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation, we estimated odds of MetS at pre/early-menopausal baseline with logistic regression, and incidence of MetS after baseline with Cox proportional hazards models. Results: Women raised in "adverse" childhood SES had marginally greater odds of MetS at baseline than did women raised in "good" SES, and women with a high school credential or less had significantly greater odds than college-educated women, in mutually adjusted models. The elevated odds partly reflected SES-related differences in exercise and alcohol consumption. Incidence after baseline was associated with education, not childhood SES, and partly mediated by health behaviors. Differences in the probability of surviving without MetS between the most and least socioeconomically advantaged women nearly doubled between ages 50 and 60. Discussion: Childhood and adult SES predict women's risks of MetS as they approach the menopause transition; adult SES is primarily important afterwards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Adverse events in childhood can indelibly influence adult health. While evidence for this association has mounted, a fundamental set of questions about how to operationalize adverse events has been understudied. Method: We used data from the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States to examine how quantity, timing, and types of adverse events in childhood are associated with adult cardiometabolic health. Results: The best-fitting specification of quantity of events was a linear measure reflecting a dose–response relationship. Timing of event mattered less than repeated exposure to events. Regarding the type of event, academic interruptions and sexual/physical abuse were most important. Adverse childhood events elevated the risk of diabetes and obesity similarly for men and women but had a greater impact on women’s risk of heart disease. Discussion: Findings demonstrate the insights that can be gleaned about the early-life origins of adult health by examining operationalization of childhood exposures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female life expectancy is currently shorter in the United States than in most high-income countries. This study examines work-family context as a potential explanation. While work-family context changed similarly across high-income countries during the past half century, the United States has not implemented institutional supports, such as universally available childcare and family leave, to help Americans contend with these changes. We compare the United States to Finland--a country with similar trends in work-family life but generous institutional supports--and test two hypotheses to explain US women's longevity disadvantage: (1) US women may be less likely than Finnish women to combine employment with childrearing; and (2) US women's longevity may benefit less than Finnish women's longevity from combining employment with childrearing. We used data from women aged 30-60 years during 1988-2006 in the US National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality File and harmonized it with data from Finnish national registers. We found stronger support for hypothesis 1, especially among low-educated women. Contrary to hypothesis 2, combining employment and childrearing was not less beneficial for US women's longevity. In a simulation exercise, more than 75 percent of US women's longevity disadvantage was eliminated by raising their employment levels to Finnish levels and reducing mortality rates of non-married/non-employed US women to Finnish rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. We investigated trends in the educational gradient of US adult mortality, which has increased at the national level since the mid-1980s, within US regions. Methods. We used data from the 1986-2006 National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality File on non-Hispanic White and Black adults aged 45 to 84 years (n = 498 517). We examined trends in the gradient within 4 US regions by race- gender subgroup by using age-standardized death rates. Results. Trends in the gradient exhibited a few subtle regional differences. Among women, the gradient was often narrowest in the Northeast. The region's distinction grew over time mainly because low-educated women in the Northeast did not experience a significant increase in mortality like their counterparts in other regions (particularly for White women). Among White men, the gradient narrowed to a small degree in the West. Conclusions. The subtle regional differences indicate that geographic context can accentuate or suppress trends in the gradient. Studies of smaller areas may provide insights into the specific contextual characteristics (e.g., state tax policies) that have shaped the trends, and thus help explain and reverse the widening mortality disparities among US adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past half century the gap in mortality across education levels has grown in the United States, and since the mid-1980s, the growth has been especially pronounced among white women. The reasons for the growth among white women are unclear. We investigated three explanations—social-psychological factors, economic circumstances, and health behaviors—for the widening education gap in mortality from 1997 to 2006 among white women aged 45 to 84 years using data from the National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality File (N = 46,744; 4,053 deaths). Little support was found for social-psychological factors, but economic circumstances and health behaviors jointly explained the growing education gap in mortality to statistical nonsignificance. Employment and smoking were the most important individual components. Increasing high school graduation rates, reducing smoking prevalence, and designing work-family policies that help women find and maintain desirable employment may reduce mortality inequalities among women. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Interdistrict choice programs are among the few policy mechanisms that work against segregation and inequality in the United States, but little research has examined these. This qualitative study examines one collaborative, analyzing how stakeholders' understandings of the program's purpose influence program decisions. It involves document review, observations, and interviews (n = 65). Our analysis suggests that different rationales for “diversity” are driving implementation today than those that undergirded its inception. A shift to “instrumental” rationales limits systemic orientations toward regional inequity by narrowly defining diversity and, ultimately, denying access to many students of Color who apply to cross district boundaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. To elucidate why the inverse association between education level and mortality risk (the gradient) has increased markedly among White women since the mid-1980s, we identified causes of death for which the gradient increased. Methods. We used data from the 1986 to 2006 National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality File on non-Hispanic White women aged 45 to 84 years (n = 230 692). We examined trends in the gradient by cause of death across 4 time periods and 4 education levels using age-standardized death rates. Results. During 1986 to 2002, the growing gradient for all-cause mortality reflected increasing mortality among low-educated women and declining mortality among college-educated women; during 2003 to 2006 it mainly reflected declining mortality among college-educated women. The gradient increased for heart disease, lung cancer, chronic lower respiratory disease, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease. Lung cancer and chronic lower respiratory disease explained 47% of the overall increase. Conclusions. Mortality disparities among White women widened across 1986 to 2006 partially because of causes of death for which smoking is a major risk factor. A comprehensive policy framework should address the social conditions that influence smoking among disadvantaged women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Kentucky v. King (2011), the Supreme Court held that police officers may enter a residence under the ‘exigent circumstances’ exception to the 4th Amendment’s search warrant requirement even when it is the police activity which creates the exigent circumstance. This case is the latest in a series of decisions in which the Supreme Court has weakened the protections of the 4th Amendment in the interests of police efficiency and effectiveness. In this paper, we take the position the Supreme Court erred in its decision; our colleague Martin O’Connor takes the opposite position. This is the latest in our annual ‘point–counterpoint’ series of articles on recent Supreme Court decisions affecting criminal justice. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The U.S, Forest Service regularly removes tons of dead biomass from federal forestlands to control and prevent devastating wildfires. Every year thinning young trees and brush, as well as removing dead biomass from the forest floor generates large quantities of low-grade woody material for which there is little use. Currently this biomass is either burned on-site, or at facilities to generate electricity. Finding a sustainable long-term utilization scheme for this material may generate a steady demand for this material and improve the economics of fire prevention. In this project the feasibility of substituting non-renewable materials currently used in a wide variety of highway infrastructure products, with sustainable composites utilizing low-grade woody biomass is investigated as potential alternative to burning. Devices such as traffic signs, road markers, and guardrails are installed on public roadways in high volumes. Until now, there have been no clear guidelines established for systematically assessing the viability of full or partial material substitution with more sustainable alternatives. A conceptual framework is presented, outlining necessary input information, inquiries, practical steps, and decision points necessary to determine if material substitution in a product or its individual components is viable. This procedure can assist entrepreneurs and small-scale businesses willing to enter the market, and provide opportunities in rural regions affected by the decline in the forest products industry. The application of this procedure is demonstrated on three selected highway products. Potential benefits to the environment, the economy, and local communities are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The educational gradient of U.S. adult mortality became steeper between 1960 and the mid-1980s, but whether it continued to steepen is less clear given a dearth of attention to these trends since then. This study provides new evidence on trends in the education-mortality gradient from 1986 through 2006 by race, gender, and age among non-Hispanic Whites and Blacks using data from the 2010 release of the National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality File. Results show that for White and Black men, the gradient steepened among older ages because declines in mortality risk across education levels were greater among the higher educated. The gradient steepened among White women, and to a lesser extent among Black women, because mortality risk decreased among the college-educated but increased among women with less than a high school diploma. Greater returns to higher education and compositional changes within educational strata likely contributed to the trends. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Surprisingly little is know about the financial management practices of charter schools. The literature offer policymakers only anecdotal answers to the following important questions: Who manages charter school finances and what educational and previous employment experiences do they bring to their positions? What do audited financial statements reveal about the fiscal management practices of charter schools? What fiscal management training opportunities do the charter business officials and trustees receive and want? This article reports on a study that provides answers to these questions. Using multiple methods to analyze data from New York charter schools, this study shows, for example, that charter officials are variously prepared and desire more professional development in certain financial practices. The implications for policy and practice of these and other are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: It is often documented that the educational gradient of mortality is steeper for men than for women; yet, the explanation remains a matter of debate. We examine gender differences in the gradients within the context of marriage to determine whether overall differences reflect gender differences in health behaviors or a greater influence of men's education on spousal health. Methods. We used data from the 1986 through 1996 National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality Files for non- Hispanic White adults aged 55 – 84 years at the time of survey. We estimated Cox proportional hazards models to examine the gradients ( N = 180,208). Results. The educational gradient of mortality is marginally steeper for men than for women when aggregating across marital statuses; yet, this reflects a steeper gradient among unmarried men, with low-educated never married men exhibiting high levels of mortality. The gradient among unmarried men is steeper than unmarried women for causes that share smoking as a major risk factor, supporting a behavioral explanation for differences in the gradient. No gender difference in the gradient is observed for married adults. Discussion. Low education and unmarried status exert a synergistic effect on men’s mortality. Unmarried, low-educated men may lack social supports that encourage positive health behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In the United States, a woman health insurance coverage is largely determined by her employment and marital roles. This research evaluates competing hypotheses regarding how the combination of employment and marital roles shapes insurance coverage among Mexican-origin, non-Hispanic white, and African American women. We use data from the 2004 and 2006 March Supplements to the Current Population Surveys. Results show that these roles largely substitute for each other among non-Hispanic white and African American women, although marriage generally increases the odds of coverage slightly more than employment among non-Hispanic white women. In contrast, these roles cumulatively increase those odds among Mexican-origin women. Yet neither employment, nor marriage, nor their combination assures their coverage. Married Mexican-origin women are particularly disadvantaged. As women increasingly spend a smaller fraction of their lives in marriage, and as relatively few women are in benefits-rich occupations, stable and equitable coverage may require a universal health insurance system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE -- The purpose of this study was to assess the efficacy of an insulin priming dose with a continuous insulin infusion versus two continuous infusions without a priming dose. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-- This prospective randomized protocol used three insulin therapy methods: 1) load group using a priming dose of 0.07 units of regular insulin per kg body weight followed by a dose of 0.07 unit ⋅ kg[sup -1] ⋅ h[sup -1] i.v. in 12 patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA); 2) no load group using an infusion of regular insulin of 0.07 unit ⋅ kg body weight[sup -1] ⋅ h[sup -1] without a loading dose in 12 patients with DKA, and 3) twice no load group using an infusion of regular insulin of 0.14 ⋅ kg[sup -1] ⋅ h[sup -1] without a loading dose in 13 patients with DKA. Outcome was based on the effects of insulin therapy on biochemical and hormonal changes during treatment and recovery of DKA. RESULTS -- The load group reached a peak in free insulin value (460 µU/ml) within 5 min and plateaued at 88 µU/ml in 60 min. The twice no load group reached a peak (200 µU/ml) at 45 min. The no load group reached a peak (60 µU/ml) in 60-120 min. Five patients in the no load group required supplemental insulin doses to decrease initial glucose levels by 10%; patients in the twice no load and load groups did not. Except for these differences, times to reach glucose ≤250 mg/dl, pH ≥7.3, and HCO[sub 3, sup -] ≥ 15 mEq/l did not differ significantly among the three groups. CONCLUSIONS -- A priming dose in low-dose insulin therapy in patients with DKA is unnecessary if an adequate dose of regular insulin of 0.14 unit ⋅ kg body weight[sup -1] ⋅ h[sup -1] (about 10 units/h in a 70-kg patient) is given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objective: Previous research on the relationship between diet and acculturation among Hispanics has produced inconsistent results. This study examined the association between diet, country of birth, and a language acculturation scale among Mexican-American women. Design: The study used a cross-sectional design with data from the 2000 National Health Interview Survey and its Cancer Control Module. The module was administered to one adult per household and included 17 dietary intake questions. Subjects/setting: Subjects were 1,245 nonpregnant women of Mexican descent between 25 and 64 years of age residing in the United States who were interviewed in their homes. Statistical analysis performed: Least-squares regression with sampling weights and adjustment of standard errors for survey design effects was used to estimate the associations between country of birth, language acculturation, and percent energy from fat, intake of fiber, and intake of fruits and vegetables, with statistical control for age, education, and marital status. Results: In multivariate models, US-born women consumed fewer grams of fiber per day (β=−2.44; P<0.01) and a larger percentage of energy from fat (β=2.06; P<0.01) than Mexican-born women. Greater English language use was associated with decreased consumption of fiber (P<0.01), and a decline in fruit and vegetable intake with a greater decline for US-born (P<0.10). Conclusions: Acculturation is associated with several unfavorable dietary changes. Women who were born in the United States are at greater risk of declining dietary quality compared to Mexican-born women, and US-born English-speaking women have more unfavorable dietary profiles. Research and public health education concerning dietary intake should consider both country of birth and language. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Diabetes is the sixth leading cause of death from disease, shortens the average life span by up to 15 years, and is the main cause of new blindness, kidney failure, and amputations in the United States. Interviews with 2 practitioners and 8 individuals with diabetes illustrate how individuals embody their illness. Interviewed persons with diabetes tended to be most closely associated with the disciplined body type and pursued high levels of bodily control, in contrast to an idealized type, the communicative body, which can be considered an ethical ideal. This framework provides heuristic value by providing insight into the behaviors, needs, and struggles of persons with diabetes, as well as providing a means to more effective treatment and better practitioner-patient relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the role of fluid recovery in consumer protection litigation in the context of the case of Kraus v. Trinity Management Services. History of consumer protection in California; Summary of the Kraus case; Implications of the case for consumer protection litigation under the Unfair Competition Law in the U.S.

Focuses on the case of Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. versus Connectix Corp. in the United States. Principles of reverse engineering; Presentation of related cases; Comments on the Ninth Circuit decision; Implications of the decision for the software manufacturing industry.

This paper concerns a new methodology for accuracy assessment of GPS (Global Positioning System) verified experimentally with LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data alignment at continent scale for autonomous driving safety analysis. Accuracy of an autonomous driving vehicle positioning within a lane on the road is one of the key safety considerations and the main focus of this paper. The accuracy of GPS positioning is checked by comparing it with mobile mapping tracks in the recorded high-definition source. The aim of the comparison is to see if the GPS positioning remains accurate up to the dimensions of the lane where the vehicle is driving. The goal is to align all the available LiDAR car trajectories to confirm the of accuracy of GNSS + INS (Global Navigation Satellite System + Inertial Navigation System). For this reason, the use of LiDAR metric measurements for data alignment implemented using SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) was investigated, assuring no systematic drift by applying GNSS+INS constraints. The methodology was verified experimentally using arbitrarily chosen measurement instruments (NovAtel GNSS + INS, Velodyne HDL32 LiDAR) mounted onto mobile mapping systems. The accuracy was assessed and confirmed by the alignment of 32,785 trajectories with a total length of 1,159,956.9 km and a total of 186.4 × 10 9 optimized parameters (six degrees of freedom of poses) that cover the United States region in the 2016–2019 period. The alignment improves the trajectories; thus the final map is consistent. The proposed methodology extends the existing methods of global positioning system accuracy assessment, focusing on realistic environmental and driving conditions. The impact of global positioning system accuracy on autonomous car safety is discussed. It is shown that 99% of the assessed data satisfy the safety requirements (driving within lanes of 3.6 m) for Mid-Size (width 1.85 m, length 4.87 m) vehicles and 95% for Six-Wheel Pickup (width 2.03–2.43 m, length 5.32–6.76 m). The conclusion is that this methodology has great potential for global positioning accuracy assessment at the global scale for autonomous driving applications. LiDAR data alignment is introduced as a novel approach to GNSS + INS accuracy confirmation. Further research is needed to solve the identified challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comments on several antitrust law jurisprudence relating to intellectual property in the U.S. Effect of patent misuse on antitrust law violation; Guidelines on using patent power; Citation on several Supreme Court decisions relating to antitrust laws.

The article reports that a sometimes neglected cost of secrecy in the conduct of the U.S. foreign affairs is that it can hinder, rather than expedite, the effective formulation of policy. A comprehensive evaluation of the utility of foreign policy-making in camera would weigh this cost, along with the cost in democratic accountability, against the benefits of secrecy often postulated. Hence this brief article explores only a fraction of the issue, the ways in which secrecy can detract from effective policy-making.

The authors reflect on why life expectancy is declining among low-educated U.S. women. They suggest that while there is no consensus on why it is declining, proposed reasons include compositional changes among the women and the fact that formal education has become increasingly necessary for things such as income, marriage and employment. They argue that research needs to be conducted to investigate the factors which have led to a decline in life expectancy among low-educated women.

The article reports on the relationship between hormone-replacement therapy (HRT) and heart disease. The article discusses the Women's Health Initiative (WHI), which is a large-scale trial funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to determine the effects of HRT on (mostly menopausal) women. An additional study, the WHI Coronary-Artery Calcium Study (WHI-CACS), reported a dramatic reduction in coronary calcification in women who had undergone estrogen treatment. The study reported that HRT can help prevent atherosclerosis if it is administered before advanced atherosclerosis develops. The author discusses the relationship between HRT drugs as cardiovascular treatment and the biological characteristics of blood vessels.

Recent national guidelines support combination drug therapy targeting multiple lipid abnormalities. Current drug labeling warns of an increased risk of adverse events with statin and niacin combinations. These recommendations have been based solely on case reports. We compared the rates of adverse event reports (AERs) received by the United States Food and Drug Administration (1999 to March 2005) associated with the combination of lovastatin/niacin-extended release (ER) with those of lovastatin or niacin-ER alone, and other commonly used statins. The following AERs were considered: events that were fatal, life-threatening, or resulted in hospitalization (serious AERs), hepatotoxicity (liver AERs), and rhabdomyolysis (rhabdomyolysis AERs). We also calculated the prevalence of concomitant niacin-ER therapy in statin-associated AERs. The rate of serious AERs associated with the combination lovastatin/niacin-ER was similar to that of lovastatin or niacin-ER alone, and significantly less than that of atorvastatin or simvastatin. Likewise, the rates of liver and rhabdomyolysis AERs associated with lovastatin/niacin-ER were similar to those of the other statins or niacin-ER alone and lower than those of simvastatin-associated rhabdomyolysis reports (p <0.01). Concomitant niacin-ER use in statin-associated AERs was rare (≤1%). In conclusion, these findings do not support a clinically significant adverse drug interaction between niacin-ER and statins and should encourage the safe use of this combination in appropriate high-risk patients, as recommended by the national guidelines. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]