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There are over 135,000 deaf/hard of hearing students enrolled in postsecondary institutions in the U.S. However, deaf students who use sign language may not be aware of their sign language skills, resulting in accommodations that do not provide full access to postsecondary course content and reduced degree completion rates compared to their typically hearing peers. We documented the receptive and expressive ASL skills and self-ratings of 59 incoming deaf college students. Then we developed and implemented a five-week high-dosage ASL intervention with a cohort of 14 students using a pretest-posttest design. About half of the cohort improved across ASL assessments after the intervention, although group mean score changes were not statistically significant. Students accurately self-rated their receptive and expressive sign language skills based on their assessment performance. We present suggestions and implications for ASL instruction at the postsecondary level to promote college readiness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the COVID-19 pandemic, parents quickly assumed the role of teachers to support their children's learning at home. Deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students often rely on additional accommodations to access their education. The authors investigated the perspectives of 40 parents of K–12 DHH students on the use of virtual learning during the pandemic. An electronic survey was distributed through Qualtrics to gain an understanding of the new learning environment of remote instruction. The participants' responses revealed that they felt that challenges occurred in the areas of time management, language access, technology, motivation, and children's ability to function independently. The respondents were almost evenly split between satisfaction and dissatisfaction with their child's overall educational experience during the pandemic. The results indicated that degree of access significantly influenced the children's experiences of education in virtual learning settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research indicates that the development of a vocational identity is critical to the process of adult maturation and for creating a sense of purpose in one's life. Deaf individuals in the United States are increasingly interested in establishing a vocation in signed language interpreting, despite workplace obstacles experienced by other oppressed and marginalized populations. Career identity has been examined in several professions, but little is known about the factors underlying the vocational identity development of Deaf interpreters. To address this gap, the researchers adopted a case study approach to explore the experiences of two Deaf students during their first semester in an undergraduate interpreting program. We analyzed video recordings of interaction between the students and a Deaf instructor, the students' responses during an end-of-semester interview, and the students' biographical information. Taken together, the data reveal factors that shaped their paths as interpreters including: (a) educational background, (b) professional experience, (c) bilingual and bicultural fluency, (d) personal identity, and (e) guidance from a Deaf instructor. This paper illuminates how two Deaf students who engaged in separate but interlocking paths developed a vocational identity as interpreters -- or changed course -- in their career trajectories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses methods for accommodating athletic training students with hearing loss. The U.S. Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) are outlined as they relate to students with hearing loss and athletic training education programs (ATEPs). Communication strategies for educators and students with hearing loss are offered.

This study presents longitudinal data analysis of 6 years of reading scores on a large-scale statewide performance-based alternate assessment for 214 students who are deaf/hard of hearing and have an additional cognitive disability. Assessment scores were examined by complexity level, within grade-level bands, and individually over time. Results indicated that even though the depth of content knowledge increased over time as defined by test specifications, students generally maintained a stable level of proficiency as determined by the state performance standards. Interpretation of results underscores the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to reading instruction among special educators, teachers of the deaf, and speech-language pathologists to improve outcomes of this population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In deaf education , the sign language skills of teacher and interpreter candidates are infrequently assessed; when they are, formal measures are commonly used upon preparation program completion, as opposed to informal measures related to instructional tasks. Using an informal picture storybook task, the authors investigated the receptive and expressive narrative sign language skills of 10 teacher and interpreter candidates in a university preparation program. The candidates evaluated signed renditions of two signing children, as well as their own expressive renditions, using the Signed Reading Fluency Rubric (Easterbrooks & Huston, 2008) at the completion of their fifth sign language course. Candidates' evaluations were compared overall and across 12 sign language indicators to ratings of two university program professors. Some variation existed across ratings for individual indicators, but generally the candidates were aware of and could accurately rate their own abilities and those of two signing children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF with a disability or disabilities (DWD) constitute nearly half of the population of K-12 learners who are deaf or hard of hearing. However, there is a dearth of information on theory, research, and practice related to these learners. The authors present an overview of (a) how the field of education of students who are D/deaf and hard of hearing might refer to this unique population in a way that represents the learner, not the disability; (b) the demographic data that further define these learners; (c) a theoretical framework within which to guide research and practice; (d) prevalence and frequency of the existing research; and (e) the practices and resources available to guide practitioners and the parents of students who are DWD. Questions are posed to the field on how to continue to improve the theory, research, and pedagogy used with these students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A NATIONAL SURVEY was conducted to determine the needs of teachers and service providers working with students who are deaf and hard of hearing with disabilities (DWD). Quantitative and qualitative questions were asked regarding knowledge of, training with, and strategies used with students who are DWD. Responses from 264 professionals working with this population are reported. Results are reviewed and tied to previous research before and after the 2008 revalidation of the Council on Education of the Deaf standards for teachers of the deaf. Final recommendations are made for (a) virtual learning opportunities, (b) hands-on field experiences and course work in teacher preparation programs, and (c) empirically based research. By understanding the needs of professionals who are currently working with students who are DWD, researchers can help improve teacher preparation programs as well as improve the educational systems currently in place for these learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study sought to investigate reading perceptions, computer use perceptions, and online reading comprehension strategy use of 26 students who are deaf/hard of hearing in grades 4 through 8 attending public school districts in a tri-state area of the U.S. Students completed an online questionnaire and descriptive analysis indicated that students liked to read information online and that they felt this was an easy task. Results further revealed moderate use of comprehension strategies. The highest reported usage of comprehension strategies with online text were Problem Solving strategies and the lowest reported usage were Support strategies. Relationships were found between strategies reported to be used and several demographic variables, participants' perceptions of themselves as a reader, and perceptions of the task of reading online text. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working with students who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) can raise questions about whether language and literacy delays and difficulties are related directly to late and limited access to spoken language, to co-occurring language learning disabilities (LLD), or to both. A new Test of Integrated Language and Literacy Skills, which incorporates 15 subtests for profiling oral and written language at sound/word and sentence/discourse levels, was used to assess 3 groups of school-age students (ages 6-18 years; n = 43 each). Students in 2 comparison groups--a typically developing (TD) group and an LLD group--were matched individually for age, sex, race/ethnicity, and parental education to 43 DHH students with moderate-to-profound bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. The DHH students used either cochlear implants (n = 28), if their hearing levels were profound, or hearing aids (n = 14), if their hearing levels were more moderate. All had been learning English primarily through listening and speaking from a young age. The DHH group performed poorer than the TD students in all areas except for the Written Expression discourse score. The DHH students performed poorer than the LLD students on Nonword Repetition and all other oral language subtests (except Vocabulary Awareness and Digit Span Backward) but did not differ front the LLD group on written language subtests (i.e., Nonword Reading; Reading Fluency; and Reading Comprehension and Written Expression discourse, sentence, and word measures). The only exception was represented by Nonword Spelling. Regression models showed that vocabulary awareness was the major predictor of DHH students' listening comprehension, reading comprehension, and nonword spelling skills. Phonemic awareness skills significantly contributed to their reading decoding. These results indicate the value of using comprehensive direct assessment to profile DHH students' oral and written language skills from subword to discourse levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit's ruling in the 2013 case K.M. ex rel. Bright v. Tustin Unified School District which deals with the legal rights of deaf and hard-of-hearing students under Title II of the nation's Americans with Disabilities Act. According to the article, the plaintiffs claim that their school districts were obligated to provide the students with Communication Access Realtime Translation (CART) speech-to-text and transcription services.

This article presents receptive and expressive American Sign Language skills of 85 students, 6 through 22 years of age at a residential school for the deaf using the American Sign Language Receptive Skills Test and the Ozcaliskan Motion Stimuli. Results are presented by ages and indicate that students' receptive skills increased with age and were still developing across this age range. Students' expressive skills, specifically classifier production, increased with age but did not approach adult-like performance. On both measures, deaf children with deaf parents scored higher than their peers with hearing parents and many components of the measures significantly correlated. These results suggest that these two measures provide a well-rounded snapshot of individual students' American Sign Language skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this article is to explore textism in English as adopted by American deaf adolescents, examining its features and social function within the under-represented population of deaf teens in growing research on texting. This case study collected a corpus of 370 text messages exchanged via cell phone between a high-school pair at a US residential school. Also included were survey responses from 35 high-school students and interviews with the texting pair and several teachers, all of which enhanced the understanding of how deaf adolescents at this school used texting for communication. The corpus was analyzed, along with the surveyed general characteristics of texting. The pair’s messages indicated that the deaf adolescents adopted various characteristics of textism used by the English-speaking hearing adolescents studied by other researchers. However, the corpus also showed incidents of characteristics unique to the deaf teens’ texting, such as structural transfer from sign language. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A list of postsecondary programs in the U.S. which are designed specifically for deaf people and other postsecondary programs which provide supportive services for deaf students is presented which includes the Arizona State University Disability Resource Center, The El Camino Community College Special Resource Center and the Northern Illinois University Center for Access-Ability Resources.

The article presents a comparative view on the health and physical education for deaf or hearing impaired student in the Czech Republic and the U.S. Study shows the change in physical education's general trend from sports performance to health-promoting activities. It indicates that teachers are given opportunities to revise curriculum programs for the academic and health promotion of deaf or hard of hearing students. It expects that this change will instill lifelong learning and will back healthy habits among the students.

Current accountability reform requires annual assessment for all students, including students with disabilities. Testing accommodations are one way to increase access to assessments while maintaining the validity of test scores. This paper provides findings from an exploratory logistic regression analysis of predictors of four accommodations used with students who are deaf or hard of hearing: extended time, test directions interpreted, test items interpreted, and test items read aloud. Predicting factors included state policy, educational setting, teacher perspectives, and student characteristics. The paper discusses implications for assessment policies and practices with students who are deaf or hard of hearing, particularly during an era of accountability reform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

THE STUDY of Deaf epistemologies is in a nascent stage relative to, e.g., the study of feminist or African American epistemologies. It has only recently begun attracting the widespread attention it deserves. The present article addresses Deaf epistemologies as they relate to the sometimes conflicting trends in American society and education. In a relatively short period, the education of deaf students has gone from an independent enterprise under the aegis of special education to heavy influence by No Child Left Behind legislation that applies to virtually all American students. American education at one and the same time embraces and celebrates diversity, imposes uniform, rigid learning standards for all children, and mandates that all children be tested in the same way. An oxymoron exists of individualized educational planning and one-size-fits-all curricula and assessment of academic achievement. Implications for teaching and learning of deaf students are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data from the third wave (2003-2004) of the Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study are used to generate nationally representative estimates of current school and classroom placements of elementary school-aged students who are African American and profoundly deaf. These students are found to have less access to regular schools and less access to typical classroom placements within schools than their White peers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the social studies instruction for deaf students in the U.S. public schools using an ecobehavioral assessment tool. According to the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), social studies will help the youth develop decision making skills to learn how to become a good citizen. It notes that an observational study was conducted in third to fifth grade elementary school students under a bilingual-bicultural instruction which includes the use of the American Sign Language (ASL). It also mentions that the study found that the time for social studies does not equal the time spent on other subjects, that the recommendations from the NCSS were implemented by the teachers and that additional support is given to low-performing students.

The article presents a study to assess the technology skills of deaf students and prepare them for post-high school expectations in the U.S. According the Bureau of Labor Statistics, computer systems design and related service professions will be among the top job occupations from 2006 to 2016 and deaf students need to be technology literate to compete with the job market. It notes that the study used standards and benchmarks from professional societies like the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) and recommendations from experts to assess foundational computer and assistive technology skills. It also mentions that the assessment tool developed by the researchers can help teachers attain a truthful appraisal of deaf students' skill.

The article discusses the reasons for the reading comprehension challenges of deaf students in the U.S. which caused the lack of improvement in their reading abilities. It states that the introduction of sign languages in deaf education only caused a little increase in the reading achievement of deaf students and the reading challenges are mostly attributed to deprivation of early language experience. It notes two experiments examining the print literacy skills of deaf students which found that students learned more from reading than they did from seeing passages presented by interpreters using sign language. It also mentions that the belief of college students that they understand sign better than print was proven negative by the experiments.

The authors present their response to the criticism of their article on the importance of phonology in the instruction of deaf students. They state that the qualitative-similarity hypothesis, which claims that the reading development of deaf students is qualitatively similar to normal people but quantitatively delayed, is relevant to the reading framework. They note that the components of phonology are critical to the English reading and language comprehension, and the focus of reading development should be the alphabetic principle, which include the relationships between letters and sounds. They also mention several facts on the incidence and prevalence of hearing loss in the U.S. and the means used by families to communicate with them.

POSITIVE BEHAVIOR INTERVENTIONS and Supports (PBIS) programs are being introduced in school districts throughout Illinois and the rest of the United States, resulting in decreased behavioral incidents and increased academic achievement. Programs for students who are deaf or hard of hearing benefit from implementation of this type of universal- level program, which includes teaching expected behaviors and reinforcing them when they are demonstrated. Staff training and data collection systems are essential components of the development and implementation of these programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines several legal cases in Canada, the USA, and Australia involving signed language in education for Deaf students. In all three contexts, signed language rights for Deaf students have been viewed from within a disability legislation framework that either does not extend to recognizing language rights in education or that presents obstacles to systemic language planning. The limitations of disability rights legislation in each country is outlined, along with alternate legal arguments for signed language planning in education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students who are deaf or hard of hearing (SDHH) often use test accommodations when they participate in large-scale, standardized assessments. The purpose of this article is to present findings from the The “big five” accommodations were reported by at least two-thirds of the 389 participants: extended time, small group/individual administration, test directions interpreted, test items read aloud, and test items interpreted. In a regression analysis, language used in instruction showed the most significant effects on accommodations use. The article considers these findings in light of a more proactive role for the in providing evidence for the effectiveness of accommodations with SDHH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article tackles on the added requirement imposed by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which stresses the invitation of the child to the individualized education plan (IEP) team meeting. It discusses how the initiative Student-Led IEP meeting serves as a means to inculcate self-determination and leadership skills among students with disabilities. It also notes on the implications of the project to students with hearing loss.

The article discusses the problems, limitations, constraints, opportunities, and new legislation for the implementation of new methods in Portugal's deaf education. For deaf student's education planning, the educational system must be able to derive solutions in order to linguistically, emotionally, socially and academically develop the deaf students. Based on the deaf students' performance, the Portuguese schools have been accounted of 28 percent intelligible oral discourse of all deaf students while 12 percent reveal Portuguese sign language (PSL) fluency. The sign-bilingual environment in deaf education has been acknowledged by the Portuguese government where deaf students are given the opportunity to attend regular schools or special schools upon their option.

An observational study of reading instruction, using the MS-CISSAR protocol, was conducted in general education classrooms, resource classrooms, and self-contained special education/deaf education classrooms in Grades 1 through 4 in public schools within the tri-state area of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Participants were 24 students who are deaf or hard of hearing and 17 teachers of reading for these students. Results indicated that reading activities varied significantly by instructional setting and grade level enrolled. In addition, teacher behaviors were significantly different by instructional setting, grade level enrolled, reading curriculum level, and students' level of hearing loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

THE AUTHORS use elements of social capital theory to explore the rapidly changing landscape of deaf education in America. They suggest that the formation of relationships, and networks of relationships, between deaf students and adults has a value that often goes undetected or underappreciated in deaf education. The authors point out that social capital theory, as applied to deaf education, generates a number of potentially productive areas for improving outcomes among deaf students, and for future research in the field. The article includes discussion of a number of positive steps to promote bridging social capital among deaf students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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EDUCATORS OF THE DEAF were long considered "highly qualified" if they obtained state licensure from approved deaf education programs. But the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) redefined qualifications based on core academic content areas, without recognizing disability-specific expertise. NCLB's reauthorization will provide opportunities for examining definitions of "highly qualified" and ensuring that both general and special educators are appropriately prepared. Under the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, educators of the deaf are primarily responsible for supporting implementation of each assigned student's individualized education program. When done skillfully and knowledgeably, IEP execution maximizes learning outcomes, and therefore would support NCLB mandates for improved student achievement. Instead of academic attainment alone, the primary "qualification" of educators of the deaf should be training and expertise in providing communication, learning, and assistive technology supports that allow access to academic content and, ultimately, address deaf students' historical underachievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the signed reading fluency in children with hearing loss in the U.S. According to the National Reading Panel (NRP), fluency is the ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and proper expression. It stated that signed reading fluency involves the automatic rendering of print into a spoken or signed form which requires the child to go beyond the simple reading of words at an appropriate rate. It is concluded that deaf readers who use sign language can become fluent readers comprising several signed reading fluency.

The article presents several contact information of institutions offering post secondary programs generally for deaf people and other postsecondary programs with supportive services to deaf students in the U.S. They include the National Biblical Institute for the Deaf in Birmingham, Alabama, the Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, and the Ohlone College Interpreter Program in Fremont, California.

This paper reports the results of the National Survey of Accommodations and Alternate Assessments for Students who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing in the United States (National Survey). This study focused on the use of accommodations and alternate assessments in statewide assessments used with students who are deaf or hard of hearing. A total of 258 participants responded to the survey, including 32 representing schools for the deaf, 168 from districtwide/school programs, and 58 from mainstreamed settings. These schools and programs served a total of nearly 12,000 students who are deaf or hard of hearing nationwide. The most prevalent accommodations used in 2003-2004 statewide standardized assessments in mathematics and reading were extended time, an interpreter for directions, and a separate room for test administration. Read aloud and signed question-response accommodations were often prevalent, used more often for mathematics than in reading assessments. Participants from mainstreamed settings reported a more frequent use of accommodations than those in schools for the deaf or districtwide/school programs. In contrast, schools for the deaf were most likely to have students participate in alternate assessments. The top three alternate assessment formats used across all settings were out-of-level testing, work samples, and portfolios. Using the National Survey results as a starting point, future research will need to investigate the validity of accommodations used with students who are deaf or hard of hearing. In the context of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 accountability policies, the accommodations and alternate assessment formats used with students who are deaf or hard of hearing may result in restrictions in how scores are integrated into state accountability frameworks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on counseling expertise perceptions of deaf clients as a function of signing skill, gender, and therapy type of counselors in the U.S. The study, which involved undergraduate students at a special college for the deaf, was aimed at examining the effectivity of simulated counseling sessions towards assessing the needs of deaf clients. The researchers also tried to resolve issues pertaining to deaf clients' preferences with respect to the manner of communication applied during counseling sessions. They affirmed the validity of simulated counseling session and confirmed its effectiveness for inquiring therapy issues suitable to deaf clients' needs.

The article focuses on the problems faced by deaf and hard-of-hearing people in communication. Most deaf students find it easy to express themselves in American Sign Language (ASL). From the instructor's point of view, the issues with deaf students' texts are twofold. The first is based on the kind and amount of help students receive with revisions. The second is of the evaluation of the written work of this population knowing that it will likely be fraught with grammatical problems. These students are having the absence of any natively learned first language as well as the absence of access to any spoken form of a language which has an impact on most deaf students' knowledge and use of English. There are significant differences between ASL and many spoken languages, which further add to their problems for the deaf. Deaf students make developmental errors as well as deep structure errors, or errors at the semantic level which can significantly interfere with their message.

In 2000, the 11th Circuit Court provided the largest single award in special education history to date, approximately $2.5 million, to two teenaged students who were deaf. The students were judged to have been denied a free, appropriate public education (FAPE), having spent their academic careers in generic special education classes for students with multiple disabilities without the benefit of access to a communication system; the services of a certified, qualified teacher of the deaf; or related services. This article describes the case from the perspective of FAPE, least restrictive environment, and due process in the presence of guardians who did not understand the implications of the Individual Education Program (IEP) teams' decisions; presents a chronology of the case; explores the implications for various stakeholders; and discusses the catastrophic impact on the social, emotional, communication, and academic development and earning potential of the students. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The written English vocabulary of 72 deaf elementary school students of various proficiency levels in American Sign Language (ASL) was compared with the performance of 60 hearing English-as-a-second-language (ESL) speakers and 61 hearing monolingual speakers of English, all of similar age. Students were asked to retell “The Tortoise and the Hare” story (previously viewed on video) in a writing activity. Writing samples were later scored for total number of words, use of words known to be highly frequent in children's writing, redundancy in writing, and use of English function words. All deaf writers showed significantly lower use of function words as compared to their hearing peers. Low-ASL-proficient students demonstrated a highly formulaic writing style, drawing mostly on high-frequency words and repetitive use of a limited range of function words. The moderate- and high-ASL-proficient deaf students' writing was not formulaic and incorporated novel, low-frequency vocabulary to communicate their thoughts. The moderate- and high-ASL students' performance revealed a departure from findings one might expect based on previous studies with deaf writers and their vocabulary use. The writing of the deaf writers also differed from the writing of hearing ESL speakers. Implications for deaf education and literacy instruction are discussed, with special attention to the fact that ASL-proficient, deaf second-language learners of English may be approaching English vocabulary acquisition in ways that are different from hearing ESL learners. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study was planned with the knowledge that the tasks of reading require the same acquisition of skills, whether a child is hearing or deaf, monolingual, or bilingual. Reading and language research literature was reviewed. Subjects were 31 deaf students (7.9–17.9 years of age) who attended one of three U.S. programs. Performance on 15 language and literacy measures was analyzed. Results were that students who scored highest on a passage-comprehension measure also were more able (a) to provide synonyms, antonyms, and analogies of read words and phrases, (b) to read more listed words, and (c) to substitute one phoneme more correctly for another to create new words than were readers with lower scores. Two groups of students also were compared: a Longer Exposure to English Group (n = 22) who used Signing Exact English (SEE) for 5 years or more and a Shorter Exposure Group (n = 8) exposed to SEE for less than 2 years. A correlational analysis revealed that there were no significant relationships among 14 background variables with the exception of “age of identification of hearing loss,” a variable then covaried in subsequent analysis of covariance. Students in the Longer Exposure Group scored higher on all measures. Significant differences were found between groups for short-term memory, receptive and expressive English, and five phonological subtests. Mini-case studies and the performance of eight students in the Longer Exposure Group who scored lowest on the comprehension measure also are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A review of research on deaf students in higher education reveals a significant body of knowledge about the barriers these students face in gaining access to information in the classroom. Much less is known about the potential solutions to these problems. In addition, there is a dearth of research on the effectiveness of such support services as interpreting, note taking, real-time captioning, and tutoring, particularly with regard to their impact on academic achievement. This article summarizes relevant research and suggests directions for educational researchers interested in enhancing academic success and the retention of deaf students in higher education programs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A sample of 163 preservice and in-service teachers of deaf and hard-of-hearing students was surveyed on perceptions of the roles of teacher, students, and the classroom. The participants' perceptions were examined utilizing the Survey of Practical Knowledge (SPK) designed and developed by the researcher for the study. The SPK asked the participants to respond to different “images” of teachers, students, and classrooms. Through factor analysis, the following images were generated: the teacher as artisan, the teacher as custodian, the student as subordinate, the student as peer, the classroom as arena, and the classroom as refuge. Beginning education students, graduating education students, novice teachers, and experienced teachers were assessed on their endorsement of those images. Beginning education students tended to view students more as peers than members of the other three groups. In-service teachers were more consistent and flexible in their images than preservice teachers were. Deaf and hard-of-hearing teachers viewed students more as subordinates than did hearing teachers. The dominant view among the study participants conceptualized the teacher as artisan, the students as subordinates, and the classroom as a refuge. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study examines how students construct meaning through writing during authentic science activities. To determine how well students understood science concepts, we analyzed 228 writing samples from deaf students in grades 6 through 11 as well as the explanatory and reflective comments of their teachers. The analyses indicate that certain process writing strategies were differentially useful in helping deaf students to construct meaning and in allowing teachers to evaluate the constructed meaning. Three instructional conditions and two teacher variables were found to play roles in determining the accuracy and adequacy of the writing: (1) the writing prompts the teachers used, (2) the focus for the writing, (3) follow-up to the initial writing activity, (4) the teacher's content knowledge, and (5) the teacher's ability to interpret student writing. The authors recommend future applications of writing-to-learn strategies and suggest directions for further research and changes in teacher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation examined approaches to studying among deaf students taking courses by distance learning who preferred to communicate using either sign language or spoken language. In comparison with hearing students, the deaf students obtained higher scores on comprehension learning, surface approach, improvidence and fear of failure. Whilst they obtained higher scores on reproducing orientation, their qualitative responses indicated that this was not because they had been driven to use rote memorisation. In addition, the deaf students seemed just as capable as the hearing students of adopting a meaning orientation. In the specific context of distance education, there were no differences in approaches to studying related to the students' preferred mode of communication. However, communicating by sign language rather than speech had different practical consequences for the students' effective workload. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the new standards in determining the knowledge and skills for all special education teachers of children who are deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH) in the U.S. It says that the purpose of a set of teacher standards for beginning and advanced teachers of D/HH students is to continue the effort to provide excellence and accountability in the area of special education. Meanwhile, it also notes that the first set of standards of knowledge and skills needed by all beginning teachers of students who are deaf or D/HH was completed in 1994 to 1995 and became available to everyone both online at the Web site of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) and in the 1996 publication of the "Red Book." The author also cites laws which are aimed at improving teacher standards.