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When in 1931 the United States sent an all-white track and field team to compete against an all-white South African roster, it inaugurated a series of interchanges that over the next six decades illuminated intersections between politics, race, and sport in both nations. Between the 1930s and the 1980s, these periodic sporting encounters served as lightning rods that rallied civil rights activists and anti-apartheid protestors, linking battles over sport and race in both nations. By the 1960s, as legal segregation in the US eroded while the system in South Africa hardened, titans of American sporting desegregation who championed athletes' rights such as Jack Robinson linked their endeavours to anti-apartheid campaigns. At the end of the 1980s, two multi-racial groups of American athletes broke international anti-apartheid bans and created a new debate over the concept of athletes' rights. As apartheid crumbled in the early 1990s, an American legal scholar sought to codify this new perspective into a federal 'athletes' bill of rights', providing a paradoxical postscript for this special issue on 'Excavating the Ancestry of "Globetrotting": New Perspectives on the Intersection of Racial Politics, Civil Rights Struggles and Anti-Apartheid Crusades in US Track and Field from the 1920s through the 1980s'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics including sports diplomacy in the U.S. in the 1970s, surfing tourism and cultural diplomacy in the 1960s and 1970s, and Canada-U.S. hockey diplomacy.

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics related to the role of sports in international politics and U.S. foreign relations in the 20th century.

In this paper, the author provides an overview of economic inequality in inter-collegiate athletics, tracing it from its origins in the late 19th century, through home rule, the introduction of the NCAA's national broadcasting policy and its subsequent regionalization after Oklahoma v. NCAA, conference realignments, RSNs, the BCS and NCAA distribution policies. The paper argues that the current economic situation and the growing inequality is unsustainable and that policies to reverse the course are necessary. Policies to moderate inequality will not only assist in promoting financial stability but will also blunt the all-out drive to win and thereby help to reestablish the primacy of education in intercollegiate athletics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Voters are more likely to reelect incumbents when political outcomes are positive. Although most scholars assume this is because voters explicitly credit politicians for good outcomes, this article investigates whether some voters simply opt for the status quo when they feel happy. Methods To distinguish these two voting models, I propose professional sports records as a proxy for electorate happiness unrelated to political performance. I test the impact of sports performance on incumbent mayoral elections in 39 American cities from 1948 to 2009. Results Winning sports records boost incumbents' vote totals and likelihoods of reelection, exceeding in magnitude the effect of variation in unemployment. In contrast, sports records following elections display no such relationship. Conclusion Retrospective voting is partly driven by feelings of happiness unrelated to political appraisal. However, I argue that the implications for democratic accountability are not as dire as many authors claim. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Intervertebral disc herniation (IDH) can cause back pain and/or radiculopathy and accounts for a significant portion of patients having spinal surgery in the USA. One of the most impactful and well-executed randomized trials to study diagnosis, treatments, and outcomes in patients with three commonly treated spinal conditions was the Spine Patient Outcomes Research Trial (SPORT). This study and the subsequent data analyses have resulted in numerous publications related to IDH. The purpose of this review is to summarize SPORT publications with IDH results to better understand what we have learned from this important landmark trial.Methods: Publications utilizing SPORT data that reported findings related to IDH patients were identified from Medline, PubMed, and PubMed Central. The primary findings pertaining to IDH were summarized.Results: There were 25 studies identified reporting findings related to IDH from the SPORT data published between 2004 and 2017. Publications in the following areas were summarized: epidemiology and baseline patient characteristics (1), treatment preferences and expectations (2), radiological and MRI (3), primary study objectives at two years (2), four years (1) and eight years (1), subgroup analyses (13), cost-effectiveness (1), and reherniation (1).Conclusions: This report reviewed the current state of SPORT publications related to IDH to identify and summarize what we have learned about diagnosis, patient characteristics, treatments, outcomes, and cost-effectiveness in patients with lumbar disc herniations. Many important findings are now published from this robust trial's data. Clinicians should incorporate these results into their clinical decision-making and during counseling patients presenting with lumbar disc herniations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Big-time sport increasingly becomes a hostage of big-time politics." The author examines the attempts of certain forces in the West to use the preparations for the 29th Olympic Games in Beijing for bringing pressure to bear on the People's Republic of China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although relationships between professional sport and the United States military are not new, following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, a system emerged in which sport culture moved beyond its customary role as an ideological support to the state. In this new configuration, organizations like the National Football League (NFL) integrated Bush administration policy into their business strategy, and the Bush administration built an audience for its military ventures through an association with a brand that attracts more fans each week than a presidential election draws voters once every 4 years. Drawing on discourse surrounding the use of military metaphors in sports commentary, Pat Tillman's death, and NFL Kickoff celebrations, I argue that there is an intensified depth and mutuality to the sport-war nexus, a shift that is indicative of the militarization of everyday life and, simultaneously, of the sportification of political life, in the contemporary United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the author explores the role of hockey in international affairs during the cold war. The author discusses how hockey offers useful insight into world affairs during the cold war, illustrating both the conflict and peace making possibilities in the U.S.-Soviet relationship. He notes that the national hockey programs in both the U.S. and the Soviet Union closely paralleled social structures in their respective countries. He explains the connection between sport and society which meant that U.S.-Soviet hockey games were a form of competition between the two social systems.

The article presents a note on the failure of the Professional Boxing Safety Act (PBSA) to create adequate boxer safeguards due to the poor enforcement of its provisions by the U.S. state athletic commissions. It is suggested that the federal government need to create a federal boxing commission to provide proper insight of the sport. The article also explains how the U.S. Congress can constitutionally create such a commission and discusses the role of the Association of Boxing Commissions (ABC) in regulating the sport.

This article explains the state action doctrine and its application to amateur sports in the U.S. Part II of the article details the state action requirement generally and discusses the major cases applying the state action doctrine to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) and state high school athletic associations. Part III explains the consequences of these cases. Specifically, this part argues that the Supreme Court's holdings in the case San Francisco Arts & Athletics and Tarkanian have had the effect of holding the USOC and NCAA to be private actors as a matter of law.

'Sports Illustrated,' one of the premier sports journals and widely noted for its professional objectivity, did not escape the influence of the Cold War. The goal of this article is to document and take the dimensions of that bias and to offer an explanation as to why this Cold War phenomenon linking politics, sports, and journalism occurred. The influence of the Cold War on sports reporting in 'Sports Illustrated,' in 1956 can be seen in the journal's use of tone, language, syntax, and grammar seemingly designed to place the Soviet Union and/or Communism in an unfavorable light and the U.S. and/or Capitalism in a most favorable light. The magazine's championing of U.S.-supported values of freedom and individualism and its disdain for Communism's alleged authoritarianism and regimentation are neatly portrayed in a story about the then up-and-coming American boxer Floyd Patterson.

Discusses the United States' use of sports and war in promoting ideological imperialism in the Philippines. Use of superior arms and resources to overwhelm opponents during the two world wars; Establishment of a system of public education in the Philippines as a cornerstone of colonization and Americanization efforts; Introduction of games into Filipino classrooms to make schooling fun.

Explores the role of sports in the development of the visions of the `American Century' envisioned by United States President Theodore Roosevelt in 1899. Roosevelt's view on the importance of sports in American and world culture; Formation of culture through the sporting practices of the strenuous life; Generation of dynamic individuals and strong communities through sports.

A majority of Americans identify as sports fans, and sports broadcasts attract substantially larger audiences than news on both broadcast and cable television. But despite the outsize role of sports in American life, we know little about how--or whether--sports fandom is related to political attitudes. This paper draws on a representative survey to examine (1) the association between sports fandom and political opinions; and (2) opposition to the "politicization" of sports. Republicans and Democrats are equally likely to follow sports closely. However, sports fandom is positively associated with individualistic attributions for economic success and support for the US military. In addition, conservatives are more likely to resist the intrusion of partisan politics into sports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article addresses the franchise relocation issue among sports leagues in the U.S. If the national government is to balance conflicting interests and to resolve intergovernmental disputes, the sports franchise relocation issue cries out for congressional intervention. Franchise location is of economic and social significance to sports fans and their communities, and it is one of the few sports policy issues that directly involves policymakers at each level of government. The issue threatens to transform privately-owned sports teams into objects of public ownership. Cities pursue sports franchises for their perceived benefits, which, correctly or not, are believed to exceed public costs. The problem is that leagues carefully limit the number of franchises. Thus, if a city depends on league expansion to acquire a sports team it faces keen competition for a very limited number of franchises. A variety of bills designed to resolve the franchise relocation problem has been introduced in Congress since 1980. Two premises of restrictive legislation are that a sports team is essential to a city's well-being and that all sports teams should be treated alike. If sport is as vital to economic and social well-being as the officials suggest, it appears equitable and good public policy to permit all communities with the resources to support sports teams to do so.

The article deals with issues associated with federal intervention among sports leagues or franchises in the U.S. Government policy should be neutral as to whether a sports franchise should be relocated, allowing the leagues and team owners to decide where the franchise will be most valuable. The controversy over sports franchise relocations first arose as a legal and political issue in 1980, when the Oakland Raiders, a member of the National Football League, announced that it would start playing its games in Los Angeles, California rather than in Oakland. Most discussion of the relocation issue is dominated by city officials and local fans angered at the prospect of a team moving after they have supported it for years. Departure of a major professional sports team can have a measurable economic impact. In addition to ticket sales and revenues generated by stadium concessions, there are indirect losses to restaurants and other businesses in the stadium's vicinity. The interests of sports fans and local taxpayers can be served quite adequately through businesslike contracts and market processes. For any private market to work properly, the government must not distort or block the process.

Presents a comparative approach to analyzing Major League Baseball stadiums and public policy in four cities around the United States. Examination of how the business of professional sports franchises gets on the governmental agenda; Patterns that characterize public policymaking aimed towards retaining Major League Baseball franchises.

Examines the publicly reported positions taken by policy actors on the issue of stadium development in the United States. Competition among cities to put together the most attractive package to lure sports teams; Perception of stadium project as economic development solution sets; Symbolic benefits which compel public officials to act.

Preventing the use of performance enhancing drugs in sport has long been a concern for policymakers. In the United States, amidst national attention the state of Texas constructed the country's largest steroid testing program for high school athletes. However, resource allocation steadily declined until the program was defunded in 2015. Using escalation of commitment theory as a framework, this conceptual paper examines the critical, but less studied, role of politics and de-escalation behavior that directed this distinct sport situation. By combining policy and media documents with the academic literature, this paper allows for a greater understanding of how the steroid testing program was formulated and implemented, which may influence how policymakers address steroids among amateur athletes in the future. This paper also offers new opportunities for future research by highlighting a new sport context in which escalation of commitment theory applies and specifically noting the significant role politics can play in escalation or de-escalation decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The healthy stadia agenda and sport heritage research appear to have much in common, though their relationship has not yet been explored in any detail. Many sport heritages involve playing particular sports, which may enhance physical activity aims of the healthy stadia agenda, while stadium tours – a staple of sport heritage industry – may also incorporate healthy stadia narratives. Similarly, sport heritage and the healthy stadia agenda are potential partners in public education, both through informal stadia-based public programmes and venue displays as well as more formal curriculum-based programming at sporting venues. However, the relationship between sport heritage and the healthy stadia agenda may also have some issues and challenges as well, as many sport heritages involve health risks and unhealthy behaviour. Ultimately, managers and researchers alike may wish to further consider the relationship between sport heritage and the healthy stadia agenda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the history of the U.S. boycott of the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow, Russia and the American sports diplomacy under the presidency of Jimmy Carter. It examines the various responses to the boycott in South Korea, the Philippines and the People's Republic of China. It discusses China and Taiwan's use of the boycott to defend its sovereignty amid the growing international isolation and democratic movement. It also examines the impact of the boycott on the American diplomatic efforts in East Asia.

The article discusses the historical role of gender, race and track and field athletes on the U.S. cultural and foreign policy during the Cold War in 1955 to 1975. Topics include the participation of African American women track and field athletes in track and field competitions and the Olympic Games, the appointment of U.S. athletes as administration diplomats after the 1972 Palestinian killings of nine Israeli athletes, and the friendly track and field match between the U.S. and China track team.

Physical activity programmes are challenged with sustainability after the initial resources and impetus that created them have subsided. Financial stability is important, but social and political support also factor into whether a programme will be sustainable. Three community programmes in the United States were examined to illustrate what elements of sustainability were realised while attempting to develop the local populations’ health. Site visits were made to each community and 42 people were interviewed. The results reveal that stakeholder support was perceived to decline and was viewed as a substantial hurdle in programme sustainability. This drop-off largely explains why these programmes were constrained in what could be implemented and had limited prospects for sustainability. Although the challenges of sustaining a physical activity programme cannot be completely eliminated, an appreciation for those difficulties increases the possibility that they can be mitigated, and the physical activity programme can be carried out as intended and sustained. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

If global trade were fair, it is argued, then international aid would be unnecessary and inequalities inherent to the economic system would be justifiable. Here, we argue that while global trade is unfair, in part because richer countries set the rules, we believe that additional interventions must go beyond trade regulation and short-term aid to redress inequalities among countries that will persist and possibly worsen in spite of such measures. Drawing on an example of measures taken to redress the characteristics of a system that inherently increases inequality, the ability of dominant teams in the National Basketball Association (NBA) to recruit the most talented players, we argue that market-based competition even in the context of fair rules will create and amplify economic inequalities. We argue that, just as the NBA created a draft to reduce the emergence of severe inequalities among teams, systems of social support within richer countries should be paralleled by a global system to counterbalance persisting inequalities among countries that are produced by market forces. We explain how such a mechanism might operate among integrated market economies, and identify the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (the Global Fund) as an example of such an emerging form of global social support [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When a group of East European exiles named the Union of Free Eastern European Sportsmen (UFEES) attempted to enter stateless athletes into the 1952 Helsinki Olympics, they executed a deliberate anti-communist manoeuvre. Perhaps more significantly, the UFEES was secretly funded by the U.S. government, a fact which serves to demonstrate the remarkable range of ways in which Washington was able to fund and work with private organisations and individuals in a ‘state-private network’ known only to those who were permitted access to it. This clandestine strategy of ‘political warfare’ was used to wage the Cold War at home and abroad, part of a veritable crusade against the perceived enemy of Soviet-style communism. Academics and contemporary onlookers have tended to view Helsinki as a forum for the Soviet Union's relentless campaign of propaganda which disparaged the West and elevated the Marxism of the East. This article endeavours to paint a different picture of the Helsinki Games, and argues that the U.S. government was also directing its covert political warfare apparatus towards the events in Finland. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]