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Over the past decade, adult education and Vocational Education and Training (VET) in the UK context have been strongly affected by the implications of unstable political, social and economic situations, specifically in relation to social and economic inclusion of vulnerable young adults. This paper argues, that the development of policy transfer and policy learning in adult education has been characterised by its multidimensional nature and has been influenced by the implications of contemporary global challenges, country-specific priorities and the European agenda on inclusion. The notion of policy learning in adult education highlights the complex interdependencies between policies and practices. We will endeavour to consider how the complex interplays between country-specific priorities, global discourses and the European agenda on active citizenship (AC) contribute to national policies and practices for social inclusion of young adults in the UK context. Selected case studies will demonstrate the ways this policy agenda transfers into specific programmes for vulnerable young adults.

Vocational education and training has received substantial policy attention in recent years that is paired with the ambition for the UK to become a leading country for jobs, productivity and skills. Recommendations from two recent reviews form the basis for substantial policy reforms within the 14-19 curriculum. Discourse of employer engagement has been a persistent theme in the reform agenda and the pressure on employers to engage has been intensified. Recent policy documents, particularly within the 14-19 phase, carry the exhortation for employers to jump 'in the driving seat' when it comes to qualifications development. This article examines employer engagement in two recent reforms; Diplomas (2005-2010) and 16-19 Study Programmes (2011-present). It reflects on the extent to which employers are able to fulfil policy expectations and what lessons could be learnt from previous attempts to engage them in qualification design and delivery. The article concludes that employer engagement within the 14-19 curriculum continues to be encouraged. The level of employer engagement, however, must be carefully matched to the expertise, experience, capacity and motivation of employers. It is argued that lessons should be learnt from previous experiences of qualifications development to avoid employers abandoning the journey completely.

Work-Related Learning (WRL) has been enthusiastically embraced by UK governments since the 1990s as a means of reengaging learners in the final years of compulsory schooling. However, recent years have seen a policy shift away from WRL towards a more academic curriculum for all young people. Drawing on a qualitative study commissioned by the Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency, this article explores good practice in using WRL to motivate 14- to 16-year-old learners. The article aimed to refocus discussion on the beneficial effects of WRL for disengaged young people. It argues that WRL can be a powerful engagement tool as part of a holistic approach to support learners to engage or reengage in learning. It also highlights that any appraisal of the merits of WRL for disaffected learners should also consider the indirect benefits such as increased confidence and motivation to participate, which can potentially lead to hard outcomes of success.

This chapter discusses the relationship between the labour market and vocational education and training in England. For decades British governments have emphasised the need for more people to stay longer in the formal education system and at the same time have attempted to improve work-based training. They have also emphasised the centrality of vocational education and training in improving national productivity and growth and in alleviating distributional problems. We argue that education and training have made a more limited contribution to these objectives than governments might have hoped. This is because of a very imperfect match between the requirements of the labour market and what the vocational education and training system has produced. We suggest that a greater integration of industrial strategy and education and training policy is needed. More emphasis needs to be placed on apprenticeships and on lower level post-compulsory education rather than on higher education. Greater support is needed for educational interventions in early years in an attempt to reduce class bias in attainment and consequently in labour market opportunities. An overarching problem is that, whilst employer engagement has been a central theme of government policies, the extent of employer buy-in to these policies is unclear.

The involvement of business, including the engagement of employers, with the education sector, in particular across the secondary phase, has been a contested area for over 30 years. A recent example of employer engagement is the development of the new Diploma qualifications, introduced as part of the 14-19 education reform in England and supposedly, employer-designed qualifications: knowledge and transferable skills are developed in an applied context. It is argued that employer involvement in Diploma development represented an extreme manifestation of employer engagement. Research data reveal employers' enthusiasm and commitment to the task and their appreciation of being able to participate in shaping the education landscape in a significant way. At the same time the question is raised whether employers were stretched beyond their capacity. Even though a large number of employers were mobilised, there were clear insufficiencies in the process. Considering the size and spread of employers in England, the number of participating employers was small and so could not be representative. Employers were unfamiliar with the technicalities of qualifications development, and many felt that their initial vision and content suggestions were not incorporated as the qualification developed. Despite employers' good will, the question is raised about sustainability of existing employer engagement in the current economic climate, let alone its intensification. (Contains 1 figure and 2 tables.)