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This paper presents an extensive analysis of the UK's largest bifacial photovoltaic (PV) power plant, located in North Yorkshire. Commissioned in January 2020, this trailblazing facility, with a total installed capacity of 34.7 MW, is a benchmark for the evaluation of bifacial solar technology within the region. This pioneering study provides a thorough comparative assessment of bifacial and monofacial PV systems through a methodical investigation of their energy production, degradation rates, and spectral responses over a 4-year operational period. Our findings reveal that bifacial PV modules, distributed across four segments of the power plant, demonstrate a remarkable average power gain ranging between 15.12% and 17.31% compared with monofacial modules. Despite experiencing marginally higher annual degradation rates—1.17% for bifacial compared with 0.91% for monofacial systems—bifacial modules show superior resilience and energy yield, particularly during winter months when albedo effects are pronounced due to snow coverage. The study also highlights the strategic importance of spectral response analysis in optimizing PV performance. Bifacial modules have shown greater efficiency in capturing infrared radiation—a property that could be exploited to enhance overall energy yield under specific environmental conditions. The empirical data indicate a consistent performance of bifacial modules with an average normalized energy output clustering around the expected efficiency level. Therefore, the results of this study are pivotal for understanding the practical implications of deploying bifacial PV technology on a large scale. They provide valuable data for stakeholders in the solar energy sector, guiding future installations and innovations in solar panel technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The provision of sustainable housing should factor energy efficiency, the use of sustainable building methods and materials and address the current associated barriers. This consideration triggered an ongoing study in UK which has so far conducted a bibliometric analysis of 275 papers using the VOSviewer software. More papers have been published in the last 5 years compared to the previous 15, and the UK is less engaged in successful collaborations in comparison to other economically developed nations. The lesser use of innovation in the UK has been identified. Also, the uses of sustainable methods and materials in residential housing are not fully exploited for achieving energy efficiency. A future research direction emerging is the potential to study the combined impact of using innovative materials and methods to achieve greater energy efficiency in UK housing provision. Through technological innovations and the need to move from fossil fuels (for example, through the use of heat pumps) a new approach can move the UK closer to achieving net-zero in housing provision and operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The urgent need to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 has led to a growing focus on innovative approaches to producing, storing, and consuming energy. Integrated energy systems (IES) have emerged as a promising solution, capitalising on synergies between energy networks and enhancing efficiency. Such a holistic approach enables the integration of renewable energy sources and flexibility provision from one energy network to another, reducing emissions while facilitating strategies for operational optimisation of energy systems. However, emphasis has been mostly made on steady-state methodologies, with a dynamic verification of the optimal solutions not given sufficient attention. To contribute towards bridging this research gap, a methodology to verify the outcomes of an optimisation algorithm is presented in this paper. The methodology has been applied to assess the operation of a civic building in the UK dedicated to health services. This has been done making use of real energy demand data. Optimisation is aimed at improving power dispatch of the energy system by minimising operational costs and carbon emissions. To quantify potential discrepancies in power flows and operational costs obtained from the optimisation, a dynamic model of the IES that better captures real-world system operation is employed. By incorporating slow transients of thermal systems, control loops, and non-linearity of components in the dynamic model, often overlooked in traditional optimisation modules, the methodology provides a more accurate assessment of energy consumption and operational costs. The effectiveness of the methodology is assessed through model-in-the- loop co-simulations between MATLAB/Simulink and Apros alongside a series of scenarios. Results indicate significant discrepancies in power flows and operational costs between the optimisation and the dynamic model. These findings illustrate potential limitations of conventional operational optimisation modules in addressing real-world complexities, emphasising the significance of dynamic verification methods for informed energy management and decision-planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The benefits of energy efficiency are recognized in multiple socio-economic spheres. Still, the quantitative impact on macroeconomic performance is not fully understood, as modeling tools are not thermodynamically consistent—failing to explicitly include the useful stage of energy flows and/or thermodynamic efficiencies in primary–final–useful energy transformations. Misspecification in the link between energy use and the economy underplays the role of energy use and efficiency in economic growth. In this work, we develop and implement the Macroeconometric Resource Consumption model for Portugal (MARCO-PT), 1960–2014. Based on the post-Keynesian framework developed for the United Kingdom (MARCO-UK), our model explicitly includes thermodynamic energy efficiency, extending the analysis to the useful stage of energy flows. The model's stochastic equations are econometrically estimated. The historical influence of key variables—namely thermodynamic energy efficiency—on economic output is assessed through counterfactual simulations and computation of year-by-year output elasticities. The MARCO-PT model adequately describes the historical behavior of endogenous variables. Although its influence has decreased over time, thermodynamic efficiency has consistently been the major contributor to economic growth between 1960–2014, with an average output elasticity of 0.46. Total useful exergy is also a major contributing factor, with an average output elasticity of 0.29. Both have a higher influence than capital, labor, or other energy variables (final energy, prices). An adequate integration of thermodynamic efficiency is thus crucial for macroeconomic models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research delves into the intricate realm of social housing flat units within tower blocks in Leicester, as a microcosm that serves as a perfect reflection of the larger problem of fuel poverty among social housing systems within the UK. The multifaceted approach intertwines energy efficiency upgrades, indoor comfort, and resident satisfaction. Rooted in a comprehensive methodology, this research seeks to address pressing societal challenges within these architectural projects, from fuel poverty and well-being to environmental sustainability and social justice. Through surveys, interviews, audits, simulations, and detailed analyses of summer and winter thermal performance, this study navigates the complex interplay of factors that influence retrofit success. The findings underscore the transformative potential of comprehensive retrofit measures and the paramount importance of resident engagement while offering a potential holistic checklist for future projects. This research paves the way for future studies encompassing contextual diversity, interdisciplinary collaboration, and long-term impact assessment. As it advances, these findings guide the commitment to fostering positive change, enhancing lives, and contributing to a more sustainable and equitable future in social housing retrofit endeavours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demand Reduction is a strategy with the potential to make a significant contribution to the energy supply/demand balance. Its two major themes are improving the energy efficiency of devices (appliances and processes) and changing people's behaviour towards using less energy. In our analysis of a nation's energy security, we treat Demand Reduction as an additional fuel which delivers 'negafuel', allowing a particular level of energy services to be met at a lower volume of supply than would be possible in its absence. In common with other fuels, negafuel is delivered by a supply chain with linked stages, all encountering risks of various types. A comprehensive survey of these risks in a case study of the UK shows that Demand Reduction belongs to a middle-ranking group of fuels in terms of overall risk. High-level risks encountered include the difficulty of assessing and delivering potential energy savings, the rate of building construction at the highest energy efficiency standards, optimism bias, changing policy and regulation, and operational failure (both of technology and policy). Assessing the risk of Demand Reduction as a supplied negafuel focuses attention on specific risks requiring mitigation, facilitating design of better policy, and more effective commercial products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current evolving building construction sector, the use of cold‐formed steel frames (CSF) has gained popularity due to their fast, clean, and flexible constructability. On the other side, in terms of the energy efficiency of a building, the use of CSF has raised concerns due to their high thermal conductivity, especially in the case of external wall panels. Hence, it is crucial to examine the thermal performance of such wall configurations and find solutions to reduce heat loss through walls by lowering the thermal transmittance, which would ultimately enhance the energy efficiency of the buildings. Accordingly, this study focuses on analysing the thermal performance of external wall panels made of cold‐formed and thin‐walled steel‐lipped channel studs with plasterboard linings and vacuum insulation panels (VIP). 2D and 3D finite element models developed in ABAQUS were used to analyse the effect of using VIP, oriented strand board and plasterboard, and their positions on the thermal transmittance of the CSF walls. 70 numerical analyses were conducted on 35 wall configurations and the results obtained were checked against the U‐value requirements set by UK building standards. It was found that replacing oriented strand boards with plasterboards does not substantially affect the thermal transmittance of the wall. However, adopting VIP as an insulation material has shown a U‐value reduction of up to 77%. But again, the change in position of VIP in the wall cross section has no notable effect on the U‐value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small-scale combined heat and power (micro-CHP or mCHP) plants generate heat in the process of localised electricity production that can usefully be captured and employed for domestic space and water heating. Studies of the relative merits of three alternative network-connected mCHP plants are reviewed based respectively on an Internal Combustion engine (ICE), a Stirling engine (SE), and a Fuel Cell (FC). Each plant will, in most cases, result in lower carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, relative to those from the most efficient condensing boilers. In addition, they lead to operational cost savings for the consumer, depending on house type. However, their capital costs are presently more expensive than a conventional boiler, with the FC being prohibitively so. The ICE and SE variants display the greatest economic and environmental benefit. Nevertheless, the performance and costs associated with these innovative technologies have rapidly improved over the last decade or so. Comparisons are also made with heat pumps that are seen as a major low-carbon competitor by the United Kingdom (UK) Government. Finally, the potential role of micro-CHP as part of a cluster of different micro-generators attached to contrasting dwellings is considered. The review places mCHP systems in the context of the UK transition pathway to net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050, whilst meeting residential energy demand. However, the lessons learned are applicable to many industrialised countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper employs demographically representative discrete choice experiments (DCEs) with owner occupiers in Poland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom (UK) to estimate the effects of subsidies, heating cost savings, installation time (reflecting 'hassle costs') and warranty length on owner occupiersʻ propensity to invest in a new heating system. In particular, the paper explores whether owner occupiers value subsidies received from public funding sources differently than subsidies received from private funding sources. The results from estimating mixed logit models suggest that respondents not only value subsidies for new heating systems because they decrease the net price, but they also value receiving a subsidy per se. For participants from Sweden (but not from Poland and the UK), this non-monetary value was found to be higher for subsidies offered by a public than by a private funding source. The results for heating cost savings in the three countries imply implicit discount rates between about 11 and 13%. We further find that respondents in Poland dislike longer installation times, and that respondents in all three countries value longer warranty times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, driving strategy optimization for a track is proposed for an energy efficient battery electric vehicle dedicated to the Shell Eco-marathon. A measurement-based mathematical vehicle model was developed to simulate the behavior of the vehicle. The model contains complicated elements such as the vehicle's cornering resistance and the efficiency field of the entire powertrain. The validation of the model was presented by using the collected telemetry data from the 2019 Shell Eco-marathon competition in London (UK). The evaluation of applicable powertrains was carried out before the driving strategy optimization. The optimal acceleration curve for each investigated powertrain was defined. Using the proper powertrain is a crucial part of energy efficiency, as the drive has the most significant energy demand among all components. Two tracks with different characteristics were analyzed to show the efficiency of the proposed optimization method. The optimization results are compared to the reference method from the literature. The results of this study provide an applicable vehicle modelling methodology with efficient optimization framework, which demonstrates 5.5% improvement in energy consumption compared to the reference optimization theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building fabric retrofitting is an important first step in improving building energy efficiency. The United Kingdom's (UK) housing stock is one of the most inefficient in Europe, and Northern Ireland has the second-highest level of fuel poverty in the UK. This Northern Irish case study developed three fabric retrofit scenarios that estimate potential demand reductions, CO2 emissions removals and retrofit costs. The first scenario reduces domestic demand by 10% and removes 6% of domestic emissions. The second scenario is more ambitious than the first, and results in an 18% reduction in demand and 12% of emissions removed. The third scenario proposes fabric retrofitting to PassivHaus standard and results in a 42% reduction in demand and 27% of emissions removed. Furthermore, retrofit schemes can provide up to approximately 350,000 jobs annually between 2022 and 2050 for the Northern Irish population. This study demonstrates how fabric retrofit scenarios can be streamlined to the unique features of a housing stock. It shows that fabric retrofit research is important for the formulation of energy efficiency policy and emphasises that domestic sector retrofitting will yield socioeconomic and environmental benefits locally and internationally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the growing number of students in higher education, the student housing market has been becoming increasingly competitive and diversified. This intensification has led housing providers to supply all‐inclusive energy packages (i.e., the inclusion of electricity, gas, and water in the rent cost) to their tenants as a selling point. By connecting the geographies of students and energy, this paper aims to assess the magnitude of all‐inclusive energy packages and its effects on students' residential choices. Based on an online survey distributed to students at Loughborough University (UK), the paper shows that 80% of housing occupied by students is energy‐inclusive. These rental commodities are strongly considered by students, particularly new university entrants, in their housing choices, 70% of whom considered all‐inclusive rent to be an important factor in their residential choice. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that all‐inclusive energy packages are extensively provided throughout the student housing market: from the low‐energy efficient houses in multiple occupancy to the newly developed purpose‐built student accommodation. Finally, the paper underpins how providing energy‐inclusive rent tends to produce energy inequities by shielding some students from being in fuel poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an approach to managing surface water abstraction utilizing real-time flow forecasting and control techniques. To evaluate the effectiveness of alternative data-driven and process-based methods, flow forecasts at a case study site (River Dove, UK) using (1) a probability-distributed rainfall-runoff model (PDM), (2) PDM coupled with an autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) error predictor, and (3) a long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network are integrated into a water resources management model coupled with genetic algorithm optimization to simulate and compare water abstractions, reservoir storage, downstream river flows, and pumping energy costs. When compared to historical data, results show that both PDM plus ARIMA and LSTM forecasts led to improved water abstraction operations, i.e., increased water abstraction volumes during dry periods while maintaining river environmental flows, as well as reduced pumping costs. Cost savings were found to be sensitive to the accuracy of the forecasting technique only within specific flow ranges. This study demonstrates the water resource benefits of real-time flow forecasting in supporting flexible water pumping schedules and further discusses the benefits of alternative modeling approaches in the specific context of controlling water abstraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The key document directing the way in which homes of all types and ages in the UK are retrofitted is PAS 2035. This document provides a major step forward in the way the retrofit of homes is conducted and while many great efforts have been made to ensure that traditional buildings are properly understood and retrofitted, there are some improvements in the way in which this could be approached. By comparing PAS 2035 with other guidance and standards which have been specifically developed for traditional and historic buildings, we can see where improvements in the next version of PAS 2035 can be made. PAS 2035 covers a broad range of areas with the process and risk analysis being a key part as well as roles with specific responsibilities and stipulated competency, qualification and membership requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A systematic review of international evidence on housing retrofit supply chains was undertaken for the UK government: a Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) summarised the most relevant research from outside the UK; key emerging themes were examined via analysis of 10 expert interviews with European and UK stakeholders, selected for the depth and breadth of their experience in developing retrofit business models. Market development requires concerted efforts from industry and policy, including the regulation of minimum standards. Conservatism in the industry means that opportunities for retrofit will be ignored in preference for the less risky, more familiar repair, maintenance and improvement (RMI) market. Successful retrofit involves customer engagement and after-care, which is outside customary practice. Financing mechanisms are important for firms' cashflow and for customer acceptance. Skills governance needs to take account of national vocational education systems, and is more complex than simply providing a few new courses. Local partnerships are needed to mobilise and organise the supply chain, whether through local government involvement or new business models enshrining collaborative quality assurance. More formal quality assurance implies some consolidation of supply chains. All these elements must be integrated into a service package, whose overall purpose is to minimise the risks of retrofit for supply chains and customers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK introduced carbon budgets in 2008, with an aim to reduce greenhouse gases by 80% by 2050 compared with the 1990 levels. It has been argued that the 2015 Paris Agreement on limiting the global average temperature rise to 'well below 2° C' requires deeper and more rapid emission reductions than the current UK targets. Household energy consumption accounts for almost a third of total UK CO2 emissions in recent years. This paper explores drivers of high energy consumption in domestic buildings from a sociological practice perspective and through a lens of dominant meanings of 'home'. Whilst the practice approach and meanings of home have been explored separately in the literature to understand household energy consumption, this paper adds new findings on the interaction between the meanings of home and the elements of practices. Results show the dominant meaning of home differs between householders; this in turn affects the materials and procedures of energy-consuming practices. For instance, if 'home' means 'hospitality', this changes the standard of comfort and convenience people perceive at home. Understanding how practices and meanings of the home intersect, provides new, much needed insights that could support policy change commensurate with more rapidly reducing CO2 emissions from domestic energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an opinion piece relating to current practice and precedents associated with tenant alterations, which hopes to progress the debate about the energy efficiency of commercial office property. The law and practice associated with the dilapidations process at the end of a tenant's office lease is inherently wasteful. The legal precedents take no account of construction waste and appear to encourage landlords to waste physical resources rather than cherish them. The design of modern offices also encourages removal and replacement rather than reuse. The received wisdom during the letting of office premises is that open-plan offices, with previous tenants' fit-out entirely removed, are preferable. This adds to the amount of construction waste generated. Potential tenants are often not given the opportunity to consider reusing a previous tenant's fit-out and therefore they repeat the installation of a new office fit-out, where a previous one has recently been removed. If this wasteful process is to be addressed, legal precedents associated with the measures of loss and associated with landlord's consent to tenant's fit-out proposals would need to develop, or regulation would need to be introduced, or, most likely, the demands of the market need to discourage 'single-use fit-outs'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study estimates the combined direct and indirect rebound effects from energy efficiency improvements in the delivery of six energy services to UK households, namely: heating; lighting; cooking; refrigeration and clothes washing; entertainment and computing; and private vehicle travel. We use a unique database on the price and quantity demanded of these energy services over the past half century. We estimate a two-stage almost ideal demand system for household expenditure, using these energy services as expenditure categories. We estimate rebound effects in terms of carbon emissions and only include the 'direct' emissions associated with energy consumption. Our results suggest direct rebound effects of 70% for heating, 54% for private vehicle travel and ~90% for the other energy services. However, these effects are offset by negative indirect rebound effects--that is, indirect rebounds contribute additional emission savings. As a result, our estimates of combined rebound effects are generally smaller, namely 54% for lighting, 55% for heating, 41% for refrigeration and clothes washing, -12% for entertainment and computing, 44% for cooking and 69% for vehicle travel. We also find some evidence that rebound effects have declined over time. We provide some important caveats to these results, and indicate priorities for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building energy performance assessment technique has become a new paradigm that plays a significant part in reducing world energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions. However, there exists a global proliferation of diverse models for assessing and benchmarking buildings. This paper proposes a single building energy performance assessment model that considered several factors that affect office building energy efficiency performances in two different countries. It aimed to develop a model that could identify building energy performance critical factors as a new technique for aggregating energy efficiency metrics for commercial buildings. It examined the relationship and interdependency between the variables as it affects buildings' performance as a basis for developing its theoretical model. Survey questions were derived from variables obtained from the existing literature using this theoretical paper proposition. A self-administered questionnaire was used to gather data from occupants of office buildings in Nigeria and the UK. Exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modelling via confirmatory factor analysis were used to analyse the explanatory power of the measured variables and their constructs. The results identified management, strategic and operational issues as critical factors that affect building energy performance in both countries. It confirmed the relationships and interdependency of the study factors and developed a new strategy that gives them proper considerations in the operations and management of building energy. Data collected support the theoretical model, and the measurement model fits into the conceptual model. The model gives a quantitative approach that identified critical factors for improving energy management and auditing efficiency of buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon emissions, being hazardous, are triggering social concerns which have led to the creation of international treaties to address climate change. Similarly, the United Kingdom under the Climate Change Act (2008) has committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emission by at least 80% over 1990 levels by 2050. However, being the oldest member of the EU states (before Brexit), the UK has the oldest housing stock, which contributes to 45% of its carbon emissions due to the older dwellings. To address this issue low carbon retrofitting is needed. Therefore, this paper seeks to investigate the barriers and enablers to energy efficiency retrofitting in social housing in London, UK based on the perception of experts employed in National and construction companies with an experience that ranges between 6 to 16 years. Initial literature suggested that the problem of energy efficiency retrofitting in the general building stock has been addressed, however little has been reported on its application to social housing. This paper, therefore, groups the barriers and enablers into seven categories that include: financial matters, Technical, IT, Government policy and regulation, social factors (including awareness of the energy efficiency agenda), quality of workmanship and disruption to residents, using literature review, interviews and surveys with key stakeholders within the housing sector, and draws recommendations to enable effective and efficient retrofitting for social housing projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Refrigeration in supermarkets accounts between 30% and 60% of total electricity demand in UK stores. The aim of this study is to conduct a pre-feasibility analysis of whether the use of a water-cooled configuration rejecting heat to the soil can improve the overall cooling performance of commercial refrigeration systems against air-cooled designs. In this work, a model simulating the operation of an existing refrigeration system is presented and validated against field data measurements taken from a supermarket. The examined system is used as a baseline and then modified to evaluate the impact of installing a water-cooled gas cooler. Results indicate that the use of water-cooled gas coolers has the potential to reduce electrical consumption of refrigeration systems by up to a factor of 5 when external temperatures are high. Overall, annual operation indicates the water-cooled alternative uses 3% less electricity than the air-cooled approach. A hybrid system is also considered consisting of coupled air-cooled and water-cooled units operating in parallel, for which an energy reduction of 6% is obtained compared against the baseline system. An economic evaluation of these systems shows promising results with a payback period of about 5 years for systems installed in new stores, although retrofits are costlier. • A modelling framework to compare different refrigeration systems is presented. • Water-cooled systems outperformed the air-cooled systems by 3% in the UK. • Water-cooled solutions can reduce energy use but have higher initial costs. • External temperature conditions impact the operation of a water-cooled condensers. • A hybrid approach maximises energy savings by 6% against air-cooled systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Building thermal performance is governed by a number of national policies. • The focus included attributes, technology and innovation, barriers and reflections. • The perspectives of the stakeholders did not fully align with the policies. • The industry had no objection to employing low carbon technology alternatives. • Industry should be consulted continuously in forming future policies. Abstract Current policies have implied that improving thermal performance of the built environment would be included in a strategy to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in the UK and meet the national targets of the Climate Change Act by 2050. However, the perceptions of the industrial stakeholders in this matter have not, to date, been clear. This study aimed to uncover stakeholder perspectives on thermal performance of the built environment and investigate whether their perspectives aligned well with the national policies. Focusing on attributes of the built environment, technology and innovation, barriers and reflections on reality, technical feedback was gathered from experienced industrial stakeholders via a one-day workshop and emails. The analysis showed that despite being familiar with the national policies, the perspectives of the industrial stakeholders did not fully align with the national policies in most aspects. However, the industry had no objection to employing low carbon technology alternatives in the future. The study concluded that consultation with industry should be carried out continuously to assist in the formation of future national policies to significantly improve the thermal performance of the built environment. Future research should be extended to comparing the stakeholder viewpoints and national policies from environmental and economic perspectives on a European/global scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an attempt to reduce operational energy use in non-domestic buildings and mitigate climate change, the UK government has introduced Energy Savings Opportunity Scheme (ESOS) legislation to motivate large organizations to implement energy-efficiency (EE) measures. However, evidence suggests that an organization’s behaviour with regard to EE measures does not follow rational cost minimization, demonstrating potential ESOS weakness. A case study is presented that assesses whether ESOS can lead to EE measures deployment despite different overarching agendas. A generic qualitative approach is used to assess the change within the organization; auto-ethnomethodology was used to assess the change within its facility management (FM). The results demonstrate that the energy audit delivered through an agenda of cost minimization was weak in creating organizational behaviour change. However, the ESOS audit along with the research process led to a mindset change of the FM, resetting an overarching agenda from cost minimization to co-evolution between a building and its occupants, further empowering the FM to facilitate behavioural change within the whole organization. These findings suggest that the success of EE policies can increase if policies shift from understanding end-users as passive to proactive and capable of shaping better outcomes for themselves and their organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently UK industrial and manufacturing sectors are facing dual challenges of contributing to national 80% reduction targets in CO 2 emissions by 2050 (compared to 1990 levels) and improving economic competitiveness in the face of low cost imports. Since energy consumption is the main source of CO 2 emissions and directly related to products being manufactured, improving energy efficiency in energy intensive sectors is key to achieve CO 2 targets. Energy consumption is unlikely to meet the targets unless energy efficiency opportunities and technologies are fully explored and timely changes are made to business models and policies This study explores potential energy efficiency improvements from three perspectives: system efficiency of steam networks, waste heat recovery technologies and bioenergy/waste utilisation. Two UK energy-intensive sectors, iron and steel, and food and drink, are selected for analysis and discussion. Potential business models for energy efficiency are also reviewed as there are now a variety of energy service companies who can support adoption of appropriate technologies. Furthermore, drivers and barriers to the adoption of energy efficiency technologies are considered in this paper revealing the factors affecting the diffusion of energy efficient and waste heat recovery technologies and their interactions and interdependencies to energy consumptions. Findings show that it is possible to achieve energy consumption reduction in excess of 15% from a technical point of view, however improving energy efficiency in UK industry has been hindered due to some inter-related technical, economic, regulatory and social barriers. The findings help to demonstrate the significant potential for energy efficiency improvement in two industrial sectors, as well as showing the specific types of technologies relevant for different sectoral processes. The range of business models show opportunities for implementation and for developing innovative business models, addressing barriers, and using enablers to accelerate the diffusion of energy efficiency technologies in UK industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vine et al.’s (2014) call for more randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in government-funded energy efficiency policy evaluation practice raises timely questions about what constitutes effective designs for evaluating and informing energy policy. Their implicit hypothesis that policy organisations share the same epistemic perspective as they do, and that the reason there are few RCTs are due to a set of barriers to be overcome is examined in relation to the UK government Department of Energy and Climate Change. Drawing on the author’s experience of working in the ministry, the claim that barriers are a reason for preventing RCT use is discounted. An alternative explanation is presented, framed around the idea of an ‘energy policy epistemology’ that legitimately places certain specific knowledge demands and ways of knowing on research and evaluation designs. Through examination of a specific set of research and evaluation outputs related to the UK energy efficiency policy called the ‘Green Deal’, aspects of the proposed ‘energy policy epistemology’ are elucidated to explain the lack of demand for RCT designs. Final consideration is given to what kinds of designs are more likely to gain support in this context that might also deliver many of the benefits attributed to RCTs with longitudinal panels being one important example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A transition to zero carbon buildings is needed for mitigating climate change. Yet, it is far from gaining sufficient momentum in many countries, particularly the United Kingdom. This article focuses on actors and platforms facilitating change towards zero carbon residential buildings by integrating the concepts of innovation intermediaries and champions. Drawing on interview data and building on the literatures of innovation intermediaries, champions and Strategic Niche Management, the article analyses actor configurations in three new build housing projects. The findings show that actors and platforms acting as innovation intermediaries advance zero carbon buildings at different stages of project development, with varying intensity, influence and longevity. Some intermediaries take also championing roles, while also other actors champion projects when intermediation is absent. At a time of limited policy support for zero carbon housing innovations, intermediation and championing activities become especially important in the transition towards zero carbon buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding homeowners' renovation decisions is essential for policy and business activity to improve the efficiency of owner-occupied housing stock. This paper develops, validates and applies a novel modelling framework for explaining renovation decisions, with an emphasis on energy-efficiency measures. The framework is tested using quantitative data from a nationally-representative survey of owner-occupied households in the UK (n = 1028). The modelling advances formal representations of renovation decisions by including background conditions of domestic life to which renovating is an adaptive response. Path analysis confirms that three conditions of domestic life are particularly influential on renovation decisions: balancing competing commitments for how space at home is used; signalling identity through homemaking activities; and managing physical vulnerabilities of household members. These conditions of domestic life also capture the influence of property characteristics (age, type) and household characteristics (size, composition, length of tenure) on renovation decisions but with greater descriptive realism. Multivariate probit models are used to provide rigorous, transparent and analytically tractable representations of the full renovation decision process. Model fits to the representative national sample of UK homeowners are good. The modelling shows that renovation intentions emerge initially from certain conditions of domestic life at which point energy efficiency is not a distinctive type of renovation. The modelling also shows clearly that influences on renovation decisions change through the decision process. This has important implications for policy and service providers. Efficiency measures should be bundled into broader types of home improvements, and incentives should target the underlying reasons why homeowners decide to renovate in the first place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the methodological approach and findings of a simulation study of advanced energy conservation, generation and management technologies applied to two case study dwellings in the UK, so as to achieve net zero energy (NZE) target that includes a reduction of net regulated energy (HVAC) to 0 kWh/m 2 per year and energy generation of at least 50 kWh/m 2 per year. The performance of the dwellings are also tested for a change in energy use and risk of summertime overheating in future climates in the short (2030s), medium (2050s) and long term (2080s). The findings indicate that to meet the NZE targets, regulated loads need to reduce by about half (over current Building Regulations) with community (rather than building-level) renewables playing a major role. It is also found that the NZE targets, given current regulations, are not particularly difficult to achieve in design with regard to energy efficiency but are highly expectant with regard to renewable energy. Further, summertime overheating is projected to be a risk for net zero energy dwellings by the 2050s. Despite this the regulated energy use of both dwellings is projected to reduce by 11 kWh/m 2 /yr, accompanied by a small increase in renewable generation (2 kWh/m 2 /yr). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the UK, 20% of houses were built before 1919 and are protected from energy efficiency requirements that would unacceptably alter their character. To meet carbon emission reduction targets, however, it is necessary to keep the number of buildings exempt from energy efficiency improvements to a minimum. The need to preserve the aesthetic and structural qualities of historic buildings makes energy retrofit complicated and costly but these arguments should not be used to resist change. The research presented in this paper investigates how conservation professionals in the UK approach and sanction energy retrofit measures in historic buildings. It provides an overview of the current UK legislation and guidance relating to energy efficiency in heritage buildings and presents findings from a study focused on the approach of conservation professionals to retrofit slim profile double glazing (SPDG). It finds that there is regional variation to energy retrofit in historic buildings between Scotland and the rest of the UK, and that individual conservation professionals hold different views on the use of SPDG, which leads to inconsistencies in its application. Recommendations are made for a more consistent approach to window upgrade as a means of improving the energy efficiency and comfort of historic buildings and for greater interdisciplinary cooperation to align conservation of energy with conservation of heritage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency has become a primary energy policy goal in Europe and many countries and has conditioned the policies towards energy-intensive sectors such as road freight transport. However, energy efficiency improvements can lead to changes in the demand for energy services that offset some of the achieved energy savings in the form of rebound effects. Consequently, forecasts of energy savings can be overstated. This paper analyses the energy efficiency and rebound effects for road freight transport in 15 European countries during the 1992–2012 period. We use a recent methodology to estimate an energy demand function using a stochastic frontier analysis approach and examine the influence of key features of rebound effect in the road freight transport sector. We obtain, on average, a fuel efficiency of 89% and a rebound effect of 4%. Our results indicate that the achieved energy efficiencies are retained to a large extent. We also find, among other results, that the rebound effect is higher in countries with higher fuel efficiency and better quality of logistics. Finally, a simulation analysis shows significant environmental externalities costs even in countries with lower rebound effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integration of national climate change and energy efficiency goals into conventional local structure planning requires a shift in focus from conventional concerns about urban growth to local sustainable development in which climate change and energy efficiency are key components. Local government responses in integrating these goals show structural limitations, despite widespread awareness of the need to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt more climate-smart and energy-efficient policies. This paper assesses the integration of national climate change and energy efficiency goals in Swedish local structure plans and presents an in-depth study of one plan, that of Värmdö municipality in Sweden. The evaluation comprised plan content analysis using a few selected criteria for three concepts, namely, 'visions', 'comprehensive strategies' and 'measures', and use of the Dutch performance approach to examine implementation aspects of climate change and energy efficiency strategies in the plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In building refurbishment projects, dynamic building simulation is popularly used to predict the energy-saving potential of various refurbishment scenarios. However, in this process, it is not clear whether occupant behaviour should be carefully modelled due to the lack of evidence about its impact on the prediction results. To answer this question, this study selected a UK public building and used dynamic building simulation to predict the energy-saving potential of common refurbishment measures, under various occupant behavioural conditions. The results revealed that for the case study building occupants’ heating behaviour has a significant impact on the predicted energy-saving potential of all evaluated refurbishment measures: when changing from passive heating users to active heating users, the energy-saving potential was nearly doubled. Although occupants’ window opening behaviour was not shown to be as important as heating behaviour for the refurbishment of the case study building, it has a specific influence on the refurbishment measure of increasing window layers: when windows are opened longer, the effectiveness of increasing window layers on promoting the building energy efficiency is decreased. According to the findings from this study, occupant behaviour should be considered as an important aspect in building refurbishment projects. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The UK will need to decarbonise low temperature industrial waste heat (up to ≈250 °C) to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emission targets. Industrial waste heat production represents an opportunity for reduction in the use of primary fuels used in the production of commodities. Energy inefficient processes in addition to increased emissions raises the cost of plant operation, – an undesirable scenario for both industrial competitiveness and the environment. Less is known about the quantity and potential applications for recovered low temperature industrial waste heat in UK and the quantification and characterisation of the resource can provide the needed impetus for the development and adoption of green technologies to help achieve the 2050 Net-Zero target. In this work the potential magnitude of the low temperature industrial waste heat resource in the UK is analysed by using sector-level energy intensity values for different industries while drawing on corresponding estimates from previous studies in the USA and by closely mapping the UK Standard Industrial Classification (SIC 2007) against sectors in the USA (NAICS [North American Industry Classification System]). The assessment undertaken finds that the recoverable potential of low temperature waste heat up to ≈250 °C could be up to 83.7% of the total estimated waste heat potential in UK industry. Significant opportunities exist in this low temperature range for waste heat recovery actions at individual sites. Research and Development (R&D) into alternative improved methods for waste heat recovery, storage, and use (WHRSU) technologies could also produce significant positive environmental and industrial impact. • Low temperature, up to ∼250 °C waste heat technical potential is estimated for UK. • Low waste heat potential is estimated by temperature level and industrial sector. • Mechanical engineering etc. (SIC 25 & 28) appear as important waste heat sectors. • A call to harmonised global SIC frameworks for public statistics and terminology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To achieve European Union (EU) greenhouse gas emissions of 80–95% below 1990 levels by 2050, CO2emissions from residential energy consumption must be substantially reduced. Recognition of this has led to the introduction of a range of policy instruments at both EU and member state level. These policies are examined for the EU and the UK, first by grouping them into three ‘pillars of policy’ – standards and engagement, markets and pricing, and strategic investment (each of which focus on different ‘domains of change’ embodying different economic processes) – and then by assessing the strengths and weaknesses of each pillar in terms of instrument coverage and effectiveness. Strengths and weaknesses common to both UK and EU policy landscapes are found, including a comprehensive but broadly ineffective standards and engagement pillar of policy, and an ineffective markets and pricing landscape (including effective subsidization of energy consumption in the UK, permitted by the EU), with poor coverage. The strategic investment landscape is found (until recently) to be substantially stronger in the UK compared with EU instruments and requirements. Priority reform actions are also proposed to address the weaknesses identified. The paper also offers discussion of recent policy developments in the UK. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on leases related to green buildings in Great Britain for improvement of environmental conditions and energy management, and mentions a report on it by WICKED project, which includes landlord-tenant relationship, understanding of green leases and evaluation of green leases.

The dependence of cities on intensive consumption of energy from fossil fuels is a major cause of climate disruption, and there is increasing interest in the potential for city governments to facilitate a transition to sustainable energy. Little is known, however, about the extent or structures of current urban energy initiatives. Our paper addresses this gap by mapping UK local authority energy plans and project investments and exploring governance processes in three leading cities. It uses socio-technical and urban studies' perspectives on neo-liberal governing and energy systems to interpret findings. This reveals both the gap between local ambitions and capacity to implement plans, and the potential for translation of neo-liberal governing into contrasting commercial and community urban energy enterprises, prefiguring different energy futures. Overall, however, the neo-liberal framework is associated with small scale and uneven initiatives, with limited contribution to a systemic shift to sustainable cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2008 Climate Change Act has committed the UK to reduce carbon emissions by 80 per cent in 2050from 1990 levels. Key to achieving this is a focus on reducing carbon emissions in residential property, where more than a quarter of the nation's carbon dioxide is emitted. The assessment of dwellings is an essential part of this process and this paper investigates the role of the assessor and the various energy models as applied in the UK. Within this context, the authors consider the building energy modelling system that is in place for reporting carbon reductions, with a focus on the role of assessors. In doing this, the authors will simulate errors in data collection and input, and analyse their ramifications for building performance and the incentive systems in the UK. The paper closes by considering how the problem may be further investigated to better understand the linkages between policy, knowledge and performance analysis in UK domestic properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

District heating schemes can act as enablers for the use of low carbon heat sources. Heat rejected by industrial sites could potentially be used in supplying such schemes but various constraints limit the extent to which this is likely to occur. This study estimates the quantity of heat that could be supplied to district heating networks from industrial sites in Great Britain (GB), in the context of a range of limiting criteria. An existing spatially disaggregated database of GB's heat demands was combined with previous analysis of the magnitude, temperature and location of the heat that is rejected by industrial sites. The heat that could be supplied from the industrial sites to the heat demands was then calculated with a range of different criteria applied. The criteria which were considered included the maximum allowable distance between the heat sources and demands, the minimum heat density of the demands which was considered feasible, the heat losses that may occur, and the seasonal profile of the heat demands. The potential gains from using absorption heat pumps, driven by high temperature heat to supply lower grade heat were found to be limited. High and low estimates of the heat rejected by the industrial sites were compared. Domestic and non-domestic heat demands were examined. Although the domestic demands have a greater total, they tend to occur at lower densities and so it is likely that both demands will take a significant share of the heat supplied. The seasonality of the heat demands has a greater impact on the need for supplementary heat sources than on the total heat delivered. For the distance and heat demand density criteria considered most appropriate, only half of the heat which is rejected by industry could be utilised by district heating networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Air infiltration, occurring through gaps in the building envelope, can contribute up to one third of total heat losses associated with older UK dwellings [1]. Therefore, reducing the rate of air leakage (i.e. improving air ‘tightness’) can have a positive effect in terms of decreasing space heating requirements. This study presents an investigation of the effectiveness of airtightness measures applied in a retrofit context to a UK dwelling. A phased programme of refurbishment work was undertaken to a test dwelling at the University of Nottingham campus, UK. Evaluation techniques, including building energy modelling (SAP 2009), air pressurisation tests and thermal imaging, were performed. The study demonstrates that the use of conventional draught-proofing measures can achieve a reduction in air permeability of over 30% when compared with the house base case value of 15.57 m 3 /(h.m 2 ) @ 50 Pa. This reduction was only achievable with close attention to installation detail. Further measures of service penetration and floor sealing enabled the air permeability to be reduced to as low as 4.74 m 3 /(h m 2 ) @ 50 Pa. Modelling of the test dwelling predicted an initial space heating supply energy requirement of 32,373 kWh, which was reduced to 23,197 kWh by a combination of the air tightness measures, insulation, and system (boiler and ventilation) improvements. Air tightness measures alone contributed to approximately 9% of the predicted total reduction, half of which was due to relatively straight-forward draught-proofing. Other more advanced air tightness measures were considerably more expensive, though cheaper approaches to their application could help reduce payback times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Millions of homes around the world suffer from “fuel poverty,” commonly defined as the necessity to spend more than 10 percent of their income paying energy bills. This article first discusses how home energy efficiency schemes, such as those that pay to weatherize doors and windows, install insulation, and give free energy audits, can significantly reduce the prevalence of fuel poverty. It then examines the “Warm Front” program in England, which over the course of 2000–2013 saw 2.3 million “fuel poor” British homes receive energy efficiency upgrades to save them money and improve their overall health. Warm Front not only lessened the prevalence of fuel poverty; it cut greenhouse gas emissions, produced an average extra annual income of £1894.79 per participating household, and reported exceptional customer satisfaction with more than 90 percent of its customers praising the scheme. This study details the history, benefits, and challenges of the program, and it teases out six noteworthy lessons for energy analysts, planners, and policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differences between measured and predicted energy demand of dwellings across construction age-bands are of interest since these categories mark changes in construction methods and building codes over time. This study compared empirical measures of gas consumption for three-bedroom dwellings in the UK with predictions from the Cambridge Housing Model (CHM), a bottom-up building physics model used for national energy statistics and government policy development. It used gas consumption data collected from 2008 to 2010 from a sample of 255 three-bedroom dwellings. For age-bands of dwellings built since 1919, empirical estimates of annual gas consumption in 2011 were slightly higher than the model predictions but the rate of decline across age bands matched the model closely. For dwellings built before 1919, which are characterised by solid wall construction, the empirical estimates were markedly lower than the model predictions both for annual gas consumption and the Power Temperature Gradient (W/K) – a first order estimate of energy performance from monthly data. These findings have implications both for development of energy models and for policy regarding energy efficiency programmes, since they suggest retrofit of older dwellings will result in lower energy saving than predicted by current building physics models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electricity produced and used in the residential sector is responsible for approximately 30% of the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE). Insulating houses and integrating renewable energy and storage resources are key for reducing such emissions. However, it is not only a matter of installing renewable energy technologies but also of optimizing the charging/discharging of the storage units. A number of optimization models have been proposed lately to address this problem. However, they are often limited in several respects: (i) they often focus only on electricity bill reduction, placing GHGE reduction on the backburner; (ii) they rarely propose hybrid-energy storage optimization strategies considering thermal and storage heater units; (iii) they are often designed using Linear Programming (LP) or metaheuristic techniques that are computational intensive, hampering their deployment on edge devices; and (iv) they rarely evaluate how the model impacts on the battery lifespan. Given this state-of-affairs, the present article compares two approaches, the first one proposing an innovative sliding grid carbon intensity threshold algorithm developed as part of a European project named RED WoLF, the second one proposing an algorithm designed based on LP. The comparison analysis is carried out based on two distinct real-life scenarios in France and UK. Results show that both algorithms contribute to reduce GHGE compared to a solution without optimization logic (between 10 to 25%), with a slight advantage for the LP algorithm. However, RED WoLF makes it possible to reduce significantly the computational time (≈ 25 min for LP against ≈ 1 ms for RED WoLF) and to extend the battery lifespan (4 years for LP against 12 years for RED WoLF). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK has the oldest homes in Europe; 22 per cent of English homes were built before 1919.1 It is often said that older buildings are leaky, cold and inefficient but using modern materials and approaches on traditional buildings can actually decrease energy efficiency and cause severe damage over time. There is plenty of evidence that shows that traditional homes can be some of the most energy-efficient buildings when a knowledgeable and skilled approach is taken along with using compatible measures and traditional materials. Our everyday heritage must be valued in order to retain older buildings and protect our streetscapes for future generations. It is also important tofind ways to reduce emissions and use less energy. To achieve both of these laudable objectives better ways to improve energy efficiency must be found, while avoiding damage to older buildings caused by installing inappropriate measures. The National Trust believes that a more considered approach to retrofitting will help reduce performance gaps, use less energy and bring affordable warmth to tenants white increasing people's appreciation of our everyday heritage. Led by good conservation practice and building physics, and guided by skilled practitioners, the National Trust takes a valuebased approach to its retrofit. Using its 10-year, 5,000-property let estate programme to show what is possible, its aim is simple: to deliver high quality, affordable retrofit of traditional buildings, with good thermal performance in a way that is economically comparable to other modern retrofit approaches, and to inspire others tofollow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2002, the European Union Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) was ratified. This paper uses the lens of one policy measure triggered by the EPBD – Display Energy Certificates (DECs) for non-domestic buildings – to describe the difficulties experienced in capitalizing on a policy intention to use transparency about actual energy performance to drive better energy management and focus energy efficiency investment on things that really work in practice. It reviews the history and precedents of UK Building Regulations and European building energy efficiency policies to identify what helped and hindered progress towards buildings that use less energy in operation; and compares and contrasts building energy certificates based on asset and operational ratings. It also looks at the development paths of operational rating schemes in the US and Australia. It identifies a tendency of regulators to focus on one part of the problem, the so-called ‘regulated loads'; an unhelpful split of government ownership of the topic between various ministries and agencies; a neglect of follow-through, enforcement and feedback; and a political rhetoric that favours an abdication of central government responsibilities to market forces. Based on this evidence, it identifies a number of lessons for improvements to future policy outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The residential housing sector is a major consumer of energy accounting for approximately one third of carbon emissions in the United Kingdom. Achieving a sustainable, low-carbon infrastructure necessitates a reduced and more efficient use of domestic energy supplies. Energy service companies offer an alternative to traditional providers, which supply a single utility product to satisfy the unconstrained demand of end users, and have been identified as a potentially important actor in sustainable future economies. An agent-based model is developed to examine the potential of energy service companies to contribute to the large scale upgrading of household energy efficiency, which would ultimately lead to a more sustainable and secure energy infrastructure. The migration of households towards energy service companies is described by an attractiveness array, through which potential customers can evaluate the future benefits, in terms of household energy costs, of changing provider. It is shown that self-financing is a limiting factor to the widespread upgrading of residential energy efficiency. Greater reductions in household energy costs could be achieved by committing to longer term contracts, allowing upgrade costs to be distributed over greater time intervals. A steadily increasing cost of future energy usage lends an element of stability to the market, with energy service companies displaying the ability to retain customers on contract expiration. The model highlights how a greater focus on the provision of energy services, as opposed to consumable products, presents a viable approach to reducing future energy costs and usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improved methods for quantifying energy savings in buildings need to be supported by empirical measures rather than modeled estimates of future annual energy demand. This paper uses power temperature gradient (PTG, W/K), or the slope of power demand in response to changes in external air temperature; first, to categorise dwelling energy performance from daily energy data (when 0–15 °C outside); second, to investigate variations in 24-h profiles of delivered power. Estimates of PTG were obtained from 567 UK dwellings with 118,000 days of gas and electricity data. From a multivariable regression model, PTG was predicted by dwelling characteristics (number of bedrooms, number of floors, dwelling type, and dwelling age category (all p < 0.001)) but not by number of occupants. When dwellings were grouped into quintiles of PTG, mean PTG had threefold increase from the first to fifth quintile (188 to 563 W/K, respectively). This was reflected in 24-h profiles of delivered power (30 min intervals): at 0 °C, each 100 W/K decline in PTG corresponded to ∼2.5 kW decline in mean morning and evening peak power. Using PTG to estimate reductions in peak power as equivalent ‘negawatts’ reframes potential benefits of energy efficiency retrofits and for grid resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]