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PRACTICE IMPACT STATEMENTChild sexual exploitation perpetrated by organised networks has been a major child protection concern in the UK. This paper uses police investigation files and interviews with police officers to reconstruct and explore the structures and mechanisms underlying offender and victim networks in five cases of network-based CSE perpetrated within UK communities between 2010 and 2021. Using social network analysis and content analysis this paper finds that, while structures vary, most offender networks are loosely connected, lack centres of power and lack structural sophistication. Additionally, examination of the corresponding victim cohorts demonstrates that victims often come from interconnected peer groups intrinsically involved in introducing each other to offender networks. Specific roles in network activity could be identified and matched to both offenders and victims. Statistical analysis shows that an offender’s structural position in the network is related to the specific roles they perform, with different roles showing distinct structural profiles.The study suggests that identifying and targeting offenders with specific roles within CSE networks could aid strategic network disruption. However, it is also implied that when it comes to dismantling networks, taking an offender-centred approach may not be the most effective strategy, as they are structured in a way that is resilient to these tactics. Instead, the study proposes that engaging with victim networks could serve as a more effective alternative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern slavery is a public health challenge. The objective of this research was to build and refine a public health approach to addressing it. This was a participatory qualitative study with a proof-of-concept exercise. Nine deliberative workshops with 65 people working across the antislavery sector. Thematic analysis of qualitative data. Of the nine workshops, two were proof of concept. These explored and tested the public health framework devised. Participants contributed to the development of a public health framework to modern slavery that included multiple elements across national, local, and service levels. There were six 'C's to national components: policy that was coherent, co-ordinated, consistent, comprehensive, co-operative and compliant with international law. Local components centred on effective local multiagency partnerships and service design and delivery focussed on trauma-informed, flexible, person-centred care. A public health approach to modern slavery is a promising development in the antislavery field in the United Kingdom and globally. It was well supported by workshop participants and appeared to be operable. Barriers to its implementation exist, however, including the challenge of intersectoral working and an incongruent policy environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to illuminate the little-studied phenomenon of asylum-seeking child-bearing women in the UK, survivors of violence and human trafficking. This is a significant issue in terms of the proportion of women affected and the paucity of care and support currently available to them as mother survivors. This study looked to examine the frontline support services of one project to survivor mothers through two collaborating organisations, Happy Baby Community and Hestia, and how their services support mothers' experiences of perinatal mental health, infant feeding, and the general experiences of migrant women and trafficking survivors in maternity care in the UK. Using evidence collected from semi-structured service-users' interviews and focus groups, and an anonymous online staff survey, this article shows the types of care and support that are required to address not only the challenges faced by any new mother, but also the additional challenges experienced with trafficking and seeking asylum such as mental health, housing, and legal and access to other support. This article illustrates the many complex and inter-related challenges these women face, and the way the project meets practical, informational, emotional, appraisal, and social needs. It concludes by identifying several implications of the support provided and/or needed, which could be considered by other services or policymakers looking to meet the fundamental needs and rights of this cohort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern slavery and human trafficking are well recognized as significant problems in need of legislation, policies, and actions from a wide range of stakeholders in the United Kingdom. The passage of the UK Modern Slavery Act 2015 is a hallmark of these concerns and has made the UK a world leader in the fight against modern slavery and human trafficking, a legislative development that is in line with the country's broader formal commitment to the international and European human rights regime. In the post-Brexit period, however, there has been an increasing de jure conflation of modern slavery and human trafficking with efforts to curb immigration, leading to a significant questioning of the UK's commitment to human rights. This article locates the consideration of human rights and human trafficking within these broader political trends in order to understand the prospects for meaningful measures to combat modern slavery and human trafficking in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thinking about organised crime as an ecosystem is not only novel but also offers much potential to add to the theoretical and policy-based literature in this area. While organised crime is often analysed as relationships between criminal groups and consumers of illicit goods/services, little work has analysed specific forms of organised crime activities as ecosystems where different constituent parts are dependent upon each other for the crime activity to occur. This paper analyses the organisation of sexual exploitation by entrepreneurial organised crime groups selling sex in the United Kingdom. Based upon 30 interviews with 23 law enforcement forces in England and Wales and five interviews with Adult Service Website Operators; it identifies how an ecosystem is built that ensures (a) profit generation and (b) avoidance of legal prosecution. Our analysis not only illustrates how a market 'supply' and 'demand' ecosystem is generated through mutually convenient 'organiser', 'marketer' and 'buyer' relationships, but also how the roles of these actors ensure sexual exploitation continues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study identifies the presence of human trafficking indicators in a UK-based sample of sex workers who advertise their services online. To this end, we developed a crawling and scraping software that enabled the collection of information from 17, 362 advertisements for female sex workers posted on the largest dedicated platform for sex work services in the UK. We then established a set of 10 indicators of human trafficking and a transparent and replicable methodology through which to detect their presence in our sample. Most of the advertisements (58.3%) contained only one indicator, while 3,694 of the advertisements (21.3%) presented 2 indicators of human trafficking. Only 1.7% of the advertisements reported three or more indicators, while there were no advertisements that featured more than four. 3, 255 advertisements (19.0%) did not contain any indicators of human trafficking. Based on this analysis, we propose that this approach constitutes an effective screening process for quickly identifying suspicious cases, which can then be examined by more comprehensive and accurate tools to identify if human trafficking is occurring. We conclude by calling for more empirical research into human trafficking indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human trafficking can have multiple adverse effects on a victim's mental and physical health. The study explored how a small UK community arts project was experienced by individuals post‐trafficking and the impact it had on well‐being. Community‐based participatory research was employed to increase understanding the experiences of six female participants taking part in a community arts project. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Themes of Authentic Care, Building Confidence, and Creative Expression were developed. Findings suggest the community arts organization played a vital role in supporting women to build trust and social connections, as well as to feel valued. Artistic activities helped participants express individuality, had therapeutic benefits, and provided motivation, routine, and space from worries. The role of community arts organizations is important in supporting individuals in the context of limited post‐trafficking services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 28 April 2022, the Westminster Parliament passed the controversial Nationality and Borders Act. The Act is the single biggest overhaul of the UK's immigration system in decades. The Act aims to deter illegal entry into the UK; remove more easily those with no right to be in the UK; and increase the overall fairness of the system. Notwithstanding these seemingly laudable objectives, however, this article argues that the Act represents a retrograde step in the protection of victims of human trafficking. Relying upon Nils Christie's 'ideal/iconic victims' and Stanley Cohen's 'folk devils' critique, the article contends that, in an age of heightened securitisation and moral panics, the Act will create 'folk devils' of victims of trafficking who do not self‐identify, and unduly penalise victims of trafficking who have committed offences in the course, or as a consequence, of being trafficked. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings stipulates a 'non-punishment principle' which provides for the possibility of not imposing penalties on victims for crimes they were compelled to commit. This paper investigates the UK's iteration of this principle: the statutory defence provided by section 45 of the Modern Slavery Act. Drawing on extant literature and relevant case law, this paper investigates current understandings of the statutory defence and the insights these provide into broader understandings of criminal exploitation. It demonstrates that while practitioners understand the processes of the legislation surrounding the defence, they are less knowledgeable about the nuances of modern slavery which therefore impacts the use and effectiveness of the defence. This paper challenges the basis upon which criminal law is applied, and its analysis makes an original contribution to recognising how misunderstandings of criminal exploitation can affect fairness in the criminal justice system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Kingdom has accepted international obligations under the Palermo Protocol, the Council of Europe Trafficking Convention, and the EU Trafficking Directive, in relation to the non-prosecution and non-punishment of victims of trafficking for offences they commit which are linked to their trafficking. The obligations are given effect by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) discretion not to prosecute, the abuse of process jurisdiction, the common law defence of duress, and the statutory defences under s 45 Modern Slavery Act 2015. In relation to adult victims of trafficking, in each case the question arises of whether they were compelled to commit the offence with which they are charged. This article shows how the English & Welsh courts and the CPS have had insufficient regard to the United Kingdom's international obligations in interpreting 'compulsion', and that improvements are necessary to prevent breaches of the United Kingdom's obligations and the re-traumatisation of victims of trafficking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research has evidenced the importance of collaboration and multi-agency partnership work in responding to human trafficking in both the UK and US. Three previous key studies are synthesized in this paper. We situate multi-agency anti-trafficking collaborative work within conceptualizations of "resilience" and mechanisms by which to achieve it, and draw comparisons between the structure, organization, and activities of anti-trafficking partnerships in the UK and US. We present results, reflections, and discussion regarding the utility of local-problem diagnosis and multi-agency, using collaborative intelligence analysis as a mechanism to galvanize and organize local partnership action, resulting from action research conducted in one police force area. We posit the replication of this "problem profile" exercise as a mechanism for anti-trafficking collaborators to galvanize their aims and day-to-day efforts to make their communities resilient to human trafficking. We close by arguing for resilience as a framing for this mechanism and for local collaborative efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of Vietnamese nationals consistently having some of the highest numbers of referrals into the UK's National Referral Mechanism (NRM) is increasingly apparent. However, this did not gather nationwide attention until the Essex tragedy of October 2019 which saw 39 Vietnamese nationals found lifeless in a lorry after they were brought into the country by a criminal network of human traffickers and smugglers. This paper seeks to understand the circumstances of these Vietnamese victims of human trafficking to the Britain by reviewing the situation in both countries—Vietnam and the UK. Three instances of Vietnamese nationals trafficked to the UK have been chosen as case studies. Through semi-structured interviews, issues regarding how voluntary migration led these vulnerable people into slavery will be explored and this will be analysed alongside a review of literature in the field. This paper reveals the complexity of the matter, which is primarily derived from the multinational nature of trafficking and the different attitudes and approaches of the various countries involved, as well as the difficulty facing the authorities when combating this particular crime involving this specific group of vulnerable people, especially in terms of victim support. The ultimate goal of this paper is to offer authorities and practitioners in both countries a fresh review of the challenges in supporting these victims, and to redirect their focus on the obstacles to addressing Vietnamese trafficking. These obstacles include the prevalence of—often illicit—labour-exporting companies in Vietnam, instances of initial voluntary engagement in labour migration relationships which later become coercive, and the failure of the UK and Vietnam to agree what constitutes a genuine trafficking victim. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The CCINC designated Hong Kong among twenty "priority countries" for U.S. anti-narcotics efforts, noting that the colony "undoubtedly plays a major role in the transit/trafficking of Southeast Asian heroin" and urging that "the seriousness of the trafficking problem demands increasing CCINC attention to enforcement efforts in Hong Kong."[23] Meanwhile, the U.S. Congress proved equally energetic in meeting public demands for tougher action against drug abuse. 16 For description of the Thailand-Hong Kong pipeline, see: McCoy et al. I The Politics of Heroin i , 236-237; "Southeast Asia: The Road to Hong Kong", I Drug Enforcement i 1, no. 5 (1974): 32-33. 17 For an overview of Hong Kong police corruption and narcotics trafficking, see Peter N. S. Lee, "The Causes and Effects of Police Corruption: A Case in Political Modernization", in I Corruption and its Control in Hong Kong: Situations up to the Late Seventies i , ed. C. K. Hawkins, "The Drug Problem in Hong Kong", May 7, 1957, enclosure in "Memorandum for Executive Council", February 11, 1958, Foreign and Commonwealth Office (hereafter FCO) 1030/899, The National Archives, Kew, United Kingdom (hereafter TNA); and Hong Kong Legislative Council, I The Problem of Narcotic Drugs in Hong Kong i (Hong Kong, 1959). U.S. Treasury officials during the early 1980s, for instance, noted that the flow of money from the United States to Hong Kong closely followed the flow of heroin from Southeast Asia to the United States.[72] Narcotics trafficking and money laundering, in other words, were tightly correlated, so while Hong Kong was no longer the "heroin-producing capital of the world", it remained at the center of various illicit global flows well after the 1970s. [Extracted from the article]

This article explores discursive constructions of women trafficked for sexual exploitation in newspaper articles in the United Kingdom and the United States. I draw on the results of a multimodal discourse analysis of 25 articles published in 2018 across seven newspapers. The framework of politics of pity is used to analyze the politics of representation of trafficked women. The analysis yields six categories that fall into two themes: Agency is depicted through trafficked women as deceased, controlled, and injured subjects, and visibility through the categories of strangers, victims, and survivors. These ways of appearance suggest that, in newspaper content, trafficked women are placed on a hierarchy of victimhood. Appeals to compassionate care are reserved for "ideal victims," while those lower on the hierarchy are construed as ambivalent subjects lacking a political voice. The study shows that dominant constructions of public suffering reflect a neo-abolitionist politics of representation, while marginalized identities and subjectivities are framed through ambivalence. To expand the remit of care, ambivalence could be productively used to contextualize social oppression in media accounts of human trafficking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research in recent years has increasingly highlighted the relationship between exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs) and poor mental health outcomes. Human trafficking survivors often report exposure to many traumatic and PMIEs and given the complexities of trafficking exploitation, survivors may be especially vulnerable to moral injury. Despite this, no research has investigated experiences of PMIEs and moral injury in human trafficking survivors. The objective was to explore survivors' experiences of PMIEs, the impact of PMIEs on wellbeing and functioning and the factors that may influence outcomes following PMIEs., Method: Participants were seven human trafficking survivors from diverse backgrounds who had settled in the UK. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted via telephone. Data were analysed using thematic analysis., Results: Human trafficking survivors were found to experience multiple PMIEs, including transgressive acts committed by others and betrayal by trusted loved ones or those in positions of authority. Experiencing PMIEs contributed towards considerable psychological distress, including intense feelings of shame, anger and worthlessness, and negatively impacted survivors daily functioning. Formal support, especially practical help (e.g. warm clothing) and social support groups, were experienced as particularly beneficial., Conclusions: This study provides some of the first evidence that human trafficking survivors may be vulnerable to moral injury and indicates the impact that exposure to PMIEs can have on functioning. Future work is needed to ensure that statutory organisations consider the potential for causing moral injury when interacting with human trafficking survivors and clinical care teams are equipped to provide tailored guidance and support., Competing Interests: Declarations Ethical approval King’s College London Research Ethics Committee (HR-20/21-18272). Human ethics and consent to participate All participants provided informed consent to participate. This study was reviewed and approved by King’s College London Research Ethics Committee (HR-20/21-18272) in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Purpose: This paper aims to argue that contextual safeguarding complements existing theoretical models and approaches. Its successful integration with dominant thinking and practice in safeguarding potentially offers new insights to improve system-wide practice. Design/methodology/approach: A theory synthesis design was used to purposively identify, summarise and compare selected safeguarding theoretical models and approaches to establish both convergence and divergence. Findings: The arguments provided in this paper suggest that synthesising theory offers a confluence of perspectives that promise to develop a more eclectic and holistic approach to safeguarding practice. The paper demonstrates how contextual safeguarding can be integrated with existing theoretical models and approaches. Research limitations/implications: This is a conceptual paper and therefore is not based on empirical data. Practical implications: This paper's conceptual insights include that integrating contextual safeguarding with existing theoretical models and approaches can broaden the knowledge base to whole system-wide safeguarding practice in the UK. The paper also confirms that the methodology used is feasible, although more work is required to test its efficacy on a larger scale. The conceptual paper argues for synthesis of contextual safeguarding and commonly used child safeguarding theoretical models and approaches to deal with both intra and extra familial forms of risk of harm to children effectively. Social implications: The neglect and abuse of children is a topical issue; hence, this paper has social implications regarding understanding of how the issue child abuse and neglect in the UK and globally should be dealt with. Originality/value: There is a dearth of studies that have gone beyond binary comparisons of contextual safeguarding and other theoretical models and approaches, which leaves a significant knowledge gap that has prompted the purpose of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the drivers and processes of forced migration may overlap for people seeking refuge or experiencing human trafficking, responses are invariably rooted in legislation and policy rather than empirical enquiry. In the UK, tightening of legislation around asylum has, for the past three decades, resulted in a 'hostile environment'. During this time, a discourse around human trafficking (also referred to as 'modern slavery' in the UK) has emerged. This paper looks at asylum and human trafficking in the UK to consider a fractioning of protection and resulting fractioning of support for basic needs and welfare provision, provided through the establishment of parallel systems of support for both populations. This paper explores the distinctions, interface, key points of contact, and disconnects between asylum and trafficking in the UK. It details the trajectory of asylum policy, provides an overview of the pre-history to the hostile environment, the impacts of fractioning refugee protection, and what this means for trust as a result. It is argued that trust is an essential component of UK government policies but that the trajectory of asylum policy from a focus on integration to a culture of hostility runs directly counter to efforts to identify 'victims' of 'modern slavery'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rhetoric is a way to explain policy problem framing by recognising the practical necessity to persuade audiences in contextual situations. Modern slavery and human trafficking is a complex and emotive problem, simplified through rhetorical demands to motivate an audience of supporters. This article analyses rhetoric by 212 UK anti-trafficking and anti-slavery non-government organisations (NGOs) to uncover rhetorical practices and their effects on policy framing, supplemented by archival research to compare past and present anti-slavery oratory. Our data show NGOs use rhetoric to motivate supporters and promote a humanitarian problem frame, in opposition to a state-driven security frame. Findings confirm other research in identifying an emphasis on female victims and on sexual over labour exploitation. Past and present rhetoric are equivalent in terms of liberal, Christian values (ethos) and appeals to pathos through sympathy for victims. Historical rhetoric is distinctive in arguing for the equal human status of slaves, whereas contemporary activists argue victims are denied agency. Contemporary rhetoric represses the question of migration, whereas past rhetoric is more deliberative. Rhetoric varies with the requirements of persuasion related to contextual distance, between unlike humans in the past, but in regard to geographical distance today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Juliet Albert explores what the second UK conviction against female genital mutilation means for midwives, and the legislation surrounding this issue [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Kingdom's Modern Slavery Act exposed companies to a new ethical challenge in their supply chains. An estimated 40.3 million people worldwide are in modern slavery, working in a range of supply chains, including construction and facilities management. In this article, we show how the UK construction and facilities management sector responded to this challenge through an intra‐industry initiative and went through a process of collaborative sense‐making and sector‐wide agreement on a joint approach to challenge modern slavery in the sector's operations and supply chains. The research takes an engaged research approach whereby the researchers have been able to gain deep and continued access to the phenomenon from participation in a multi‐company initiative on the implementation of responses to the UK Modern Slavery Act in supply chain and procurement activities of their sector. We identify and discuss key areas for supply chain and procurement practitioners tasked with addressing a human rights topic in their operations and supply chains: Motivation, risk hot‐spots, challenges and response and provide a rich understanding of an intra‐industry initiative which creates a basis for further research on collective sustainability approaches by businesses who are otherwise commercial competitors. The study's results and insights are useful for policymakers and practitioners who are aiming to apply market‐based approaches for sustainability improvements in supply chains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Therefore, where the SCA has determined that a defendant is a VOT, it is open to the prosecution to show that the authority was mistaken or that there was no "nexus" between the trafficking and the offence charged. The Court had failed to consider the objections to this double extension of Article 3: that it would transform the ECHR into a system for 'monitor[ing] every act of enforcement or policing of the varied domestic legal requirements' relating to every violent crime "a regrettably unavoidable feature of life" (at [109]). Keywords: Forced labour; right to fair trial; trafficked victims; human rights; criminal procedure; children; cultivation of cannabis; human trafficking; local authorities' powers and duties EN Forced labour right to fair trial trafficked victims human rights criminal procedure children cultivation of cannabis human trafficking local authorities' powers and duties 311 319 9 08/02/21 20210801 NES 210801 The case before the Strasbourg Court concerned two Vietnamese children who had been charged and convicted of drug-related offences in 2009. B Held, upholding the complaints b , the Strasbourg Court ruled unanimously that the UK was in violation of Articles 4 and 6(1) of the ECHR. [Extracted from the article]

This article examines the intersection of religious faith and the 'fight against modern slavery' in the UK, as yet unexplored in sociological literature. Analysis of faith-based organisations' activities in this area challenges understandings of a postsecular rapprochement between faith and secular actors – where postsecular is used by some scholars to refer to the re-emergence of faith in the public sphere, and where we understand rapprochement to mean the placing of equal value on faith-based and secular worldviews. Our research reveals that faith-based organisations in the anti-trafficking/modern slavery third sector operate on a 'dual register', secularising as they professionalise their public face, while retaining religious distinctiveness when engaging with co-religionists. We argue that, rather than evidence of a genuine two-way postsecular rapprochement, it seems that faith-based organisations in this sector are prioritising secular modalities, meaning the learning process is one-sided rather than complementary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explored heterogeneity (subgroups) amongst victims and suspects of modern slavery offences using a cross-sectional extract of police data from a large metropolitan area in the UK with details of 540 victims and 380 suspects (reported to the police between April 2015 and June 2018). Latent class analysis was used to identify subgroups of victims and suspects based on the manifest demographic (age, sex, and place of birth) and exploitation type variables. Amongst suspects, classes distinguished between 'Male sex traffickers' (82%) and 'Labour and domestic traffickers' (18%). Amongst victims, four classes were identified as: 'Sexually and domestically exploited women' (30%) and 'Sexually exploited girls' (35%), 'Men exploited in licit and illicit markets' (26%), and 'Criminally exploited boys' (9%). These findings reveal trafficking as structured by gender, generation, and migration, but caution against defining the problem as one of exclusively male offenders exploiting women and children victims, even while this is commonplace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presented here are the findings of a research study undertaken between 2015 and 2018 that focused on existing arrangements and mechanisms for front-line identification of the victims of forced labour in the UK. The study drew upon interviews with service professionals in enforcement and policing organisations together with workers in non-governmental victim support agencies. These findings reveal significant failings in current approaches, that suggest processes for the identification of victims remain, at best, uneven from service to service, location to location, at worst wholly inadequate. The study also exposed widespread stakeholder concerns around UK government regulatory guidance and immigration policies, suggesting that these were hindering rather than assisting them in the process of identification. Further, that the deregulated employment environment was one in which forced labour practices could both thrive and remain well-hidden amongst wider employer exploitation and abuse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the support available from identification through to recovery for survivors of modern slavery and human trafficking in the United Kingdom (UK) following the introduction of the Modern Slavery Act in 2015. Design/methodology/approach: Twenty-nine semi-structured individual and group interviews were conducted with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) providing direct support to survivors and law enforcement engaged in initial identification, rescue and support. Findings: Thematic analysis identified that survivors' experiences of support and negotiation of state processes is challenging, requiring lengthy periods of waiting. This experience is often compounded by variations in knowledge of processes and systems by front line staff, resulting in negative impacts on outcomes for survivors. Research limitations/implications: The small number of research participants could be regarded as a limitation but is common in qualitative, exploratory studies. A larger study should be conducted to test these initial findings. The implications propose a revision of policy especially for asylum-seeking survivors. Originality/value: The study was conducted two years after the introduction of the Modern Slavery Act, 2015, during a period in which gaps in processes and support for survivors were beginning to emerge. This study offers a timely assessment of these gaps and argues for a review of policy and its implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abolishing 'modern slavery' has now achieved international policy consensus. The most recent UK initiative – the 2015 Modern Slavery Act (MSA) – includes amongst other aspects tougher prison sentencing for perpetrators and the creation of an independent anti-slavery commissioner to oversee its implementation. However, drawing on research into forced labour among people seeking asylum in England, this article argues that when considered alongside the UK government's deliberate creation of a 'hostile environment' towards migrants, not least in the Immigration Acts of 2014 and 2016, state action to outlaw modern slavery is flawed, counter-productive and disingenuous. We show how the MSA focuses only on the immediate act of coercion between 'victim' and 'criminal', ignoring how the hostile state vulnerabilises migrants in ways that compel their entry into and continued entrapment within severe labour exploitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK's Modern Slavery Strategy, launched in 2014, gives Border Force Officers a key role as anti-slavery first responders, identifying and supporting victims at the border. Yet, while an estimated 94 percent of victims identified in the UK cross UK borders, in 2016 less than 3 percent of victim referrals were made at the border. This article draws on a series of in-depth interviews with a specialized Safeguarding and Anti-Trafficking (SAT) team within the UK Border Force to shed light on this discrepancy. In doing so, it takes forward critical debates about the coherence of humanitarian anti-slavery policy and the consistency of its ambitions with a continued prioritization by governments of security policy and immigration control. The article furthers two key arguments: first, that current policy around anti-slavery first response at the border is grounded in a rationale of 'humanitarian opportunism', which states that borders are sites of unique opportunity to identify and assist victims of trafficking, and that Border Force Officers therefore have a humanitarian duty to identify and assist victims; second, that the humanitarian opportunity is in reality far more restricted in practice than the policy rhetoric suggests, a fact that goes some way to explaining the very small numbers of those identified as trafficked and assisted at UK borders. Two key challenges to successful identification and support are identified: the first is EU freedom of movement, which in effect exempts European citizens from vulnerability screening by Border Force Officers; the second is the requirement that Border Force Officers obtain written consent from those identified as trafficked to being labelled a victim of crime before they can be offered support. The article puts forward some suggestions for how these challenges could be addressed for the benefit of those trafficked. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human Trafficking (HT) is considered as one of the most complex crimes to investigate. However, to date, little research has been conducted concerning what occurs during criminal investigations of HT. The present study, through interviewing 21 highly experienced and senior professionals from law enforcement agencies and governmental bodies in the UK, conceptualizes HT investigations under a common framework that underpins a model for the investigation of these crimes. Data from these narratives reveals that a total number of 22 investigative actions are commonly taken throughout the investigative process, following an apparent sequential route. While participants disagreed as to when/how to initiate and conclude an investigation, absolute agreement existed when considering multi-agency collaboration, tactical advice and support, and intelligence sharing (as core elements in HT criminal investigations). Such data enables both academic and practitioner communities to better identify what are effective investigation actions when these crimes are investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern slavery is crime of extreme exploitation. It includes the use of coercion, force, deception and abuse of vulnerability for such purposes as trafficking, labour, sexual exploitation, forced criminal activity and domestic servitude. It is a topic of growing interest in the UK and beyond as it has emerged as an issue of considerable scale and consequence. To date, debates have been dominated by a law enforcement perspective. Less apparent has been an articulation of the implications of modern slavery for the health sector. This is despite growing evidence of the dire physical and mental health consequences for survivors. This paper addresses this gap by examining a series of issues relevant to UK health systems. After describing what is modern slavery and the nature of the problem, we identify how the health sector has responded to date. We then articulate how health services and public health can more coherently and systematically meet the challenges of modern slavery through policy and practice. Finally, we present a call for the health sector to position itself as a central to the wellbeing of survivors and as a fundamental ally in modern slavery prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Modern slavery is the recruitment and movement of people by force, coercion, deception or abuse of vulnerability for the purposes of exploitation. Modern slavery is a serious violation of human rights with significant negative physical and mental health consequences. Health care professionals are in a unique position to identify, safeguard, make appropriate referrals and meet the health needs of victims of such exploitation when they access health care. Moreover, there are significant legal, professional and ethical obligations for health care professionals regarding responding to modern slavery. Methods: We designed a two‐part teaching session for undergraduate medical students at Cardiff University. Part 1 provided students with sufficient content information regarding the different types of modern slavery and pathways of referral. Part 2 provided training for students to communicate safely and effectively with these vulnerable patients. Student evaluation data were collected following the teaching. Results: Quantitative and free text analysis confirmed that student confidence in recognising and understanding the action expected of them improved significantly following the teaching. Discussion: Recent research indicates a serious shortfall in knowledge and confidence amongst health care professionals in the UK. Undergraduate medical education is a strategic point for training regarding people trafficking, yet medical education on people trafficking is variable and often absent in the UK. Although challenging in terms of content and governance, this teaching innovation appeared to be successful in raising the students' awareness of an increasingly common problem in the UK, helping to equip students with the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively identify and safely manage consultations involving potential victims of modern slavery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers and professionals tend to agree that there continues to be a paucity of evidence on who perpetrates organised child sexual exploitation (CSE). This article provides a review of currently available research and data pertaining to this form of offending. It also considers gaps in existing research and some of the challenges surrounding current data recording. Beginning with a discussion of terminology surrounding organised CSE - which has also been called "group localised grooming", "internal trafficking" and "contact child sex abuse" – there then follows a request for greater clarity of terminology. Finally, the specific issue of offender characteristics is broached through an examination of available research and evidence relating to the perpetrators of organised CSE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A significant body of law and policy has been directed to organised crime generally, with Human Trafficking remaining high on the political agenda. This article conducts a contextualised study of Human Trafficking in the UK, examining the underpinning legal framework before drawing on the expertise of key professionals in the sector, who have been interviewed for this purpose. It is suggested that it is not so much the legal framework that is the problem, but rather there are a number of practical and policy-related considerations that the government should consider as part of their efforts to combat Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through a framework that combines literature's observations on traffickers' policy-based representations with International Relations (IR) theories, this paper explores the representations of traffickers and anti-trafficking government goals in policies of the United Kingdom's (UK), Scottish and Northern Irish governments. Policies were found to mostly subscribe to a Realist's viewing of human trafficking, emphasising criminal choices. Still, and despite their growing tendency to focus on a wider range of traffickers, their dominant narrative tends to revolve around trafficking stereotypes, often ignoring the full spectrum of traffickers' identities to promote total human trafficking elimination. This discourse may overstate Britain's trafficking problem, sustaining state legitimacy and intervention and narrowing down the scope of anti-trafficking efforts. Conclusively, to ensure a more effective anti-trafficking response, the UK needs to set more feasible goals and based on an in-depth knowledge of traffickers strive to further enrich the policy-promoted human trafficking narrative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the introduction of virtual (online) court systems being introduced in parts of the UK in the particular context of human trafficking victims. The justice system in England and Wales is undergoing significant transformation through the use of technology, under a drive for efficiency. The authors argue that online court systems are being implemented without investment into appropriate legal research and with assumptions regarding the approval process, and questions the effect of virtual hearings on the fundamental principles of due process. Whilst identifying vulnerability has been the subject of guidance, it remains unclear how these courts will deal with human trafficking issues. Human trafficking is a highly lucrative industry that extends to all corners of the globe and international as well as UK protocols and legislation exist with the objective to protect and assist the victims of human trafficking, with full respect for their human rights, ensuring a victim-centred approach. The protection of personal data and privacy of all online court users is important; however, trafficked persons belong a particularly vulnerable group, and the protection of their personal data is critical in alleviating the risk of further harm, intimidation, retaliation, or inappropriate use of biometric data.In conclusion, the authors argue that technological solutions to inefficiency have been given priority over justice solutions and just outcomes, without addressing systemic issues in the context of human trafficking. An Online Court…is not, incidentally, (as some press reports have suggested) intended to be a court without judges, or a court where matters in dispute are to be determined automatically by some algorithm embedded in a computer, or by a civil servant. But it is a court where the basic problem facing ordinary people, namely turning their heart-felt grievances into something formulated in legal terms, and enabling them to identify and present their documentary and other evidence, is capable of being addressed electronically and cheaply, so that both their opponents know the case to be met, and the court is equipped at the earliest possible stage with the materials necessary to decide it justly. This statement is from Briggs LJ Addressing the Bar of England and Wales on the use of online courts in 2016. 2 2 Briggs LJ The Online Court Counsel Magazine April 2016 〈 https://www.counselmagazine.co.uk/articles/the-online-court〉 Whilst this is a hopeful description of what technology can do for the justice system, this paper seeks to show that perhaps our enthusiasm ought to be restrained until we answer key questions. The authors explore these questions using the example of victims of human trafficking. These persons engage with the justice system in a variety of ways. Some are witnesses to trafficking crimes in a criminal prosecution. Others may themselves be on trial for crimes they were compelled to commit as a result of their trafficking situation. Additionally, they can be party to a civil case, e.g., arising out of an employment situation. In each of these cases there is possibility for the victim to be identified, if they are not already, as somebody who has a right to assistance and support. There is an opportunity for the state to carry out an identification and thus, as explained in this paper, fulfil human rights obligations. What happens when cases go online? There are also serious questions with regard to privacy and data protection and how the implementation of online court processes may act as a barrier to identifying victims of human trafficking. The authors, therefore, advocate for great caution to be used with the introduction of virtual justice and call for additional research to be undertaken in order to gain a clear vision of what the current and future effects of this new system may be. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whilst studies refer to the community impact of Organized Crime (OC), no survey currently exists to examine the views of those citizens who reside in areas where Organized Crime Groups (OCGs) proliferate. 431 questionnaires from households co-existing in high density OCGs areas were analysed in relation to: a) demographic information; b) views on the community and the police; and c) how they expected other residents to react to illegal incidents. Overall respondents thought the average citizen would refuse to intervene in 10% - 48% of illegal incidents, with the specific case influencing whether and how they would respond. The analysis then compared three communities who lived in high density OCG areas with a control community (n = 343). The ‘OCG’ communities were more likely to report low collective efficacy and were generally least likely to expect their neighbours to confront a crime in action. Conversely, whilst the control group showed higher levels of collective efficacy and expected the average resident to be more likely in confronting illegal behaviour, this trend did not extend to street drug dealing and serious crime associated with OC. The study discusses the unreported intimidation associated with OCGs and the challenges of policing hostile environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This article presents a rare insight into convicted ‘traffickers’ and draws on research undertaken using risk assessment data from criminal justice sources relating to those convicted for trafficking offences in the UK between 2004 and 2008. Analysis of these data identified conflicts between the dominant understanding of trafficking and the group of people ultimately convicted for this activity. It is argued that there is a need to contextualise the response to this group with knowledge of their backgrounds often including the structural barriers experienced through migration. Developing an awareness of these offending pathways is important in understanding the nexus between the movement and exploitation of victims and the structures that control access to employment and income as well as for developing effective interventions for those involved in these offences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses the meaning of vulnerability in discourses about drug mules and couriers at a national and international level, particularly the cases of Costa Rica and England and Wales. Drawing on policies, legislative reforms and court cases, it examines how vulnerability mobilised claims for more proportionality in sentencing practices for drug offences. Vulnerability discourses also underpin claims that drug mules are trafficked persons whose culpability should be extinguished, or at least, diminished. Yet, this article suggests vulnerability discourses can also reinforce neoliberal governance mechanisms rather than expose and critique the ways in which gender and racial histories of oppression intersect with the international drug control system, contributing to the precarity of drug mule work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the Health Group conference of membership organisation CoramBAAF that was held in Birmingham, England on June 27, 2016. Topics include adjustment of asylum-seeking children to foster care, physical health needs of unaccompanied asylumseeking minors (UASM), and mental health needs. The event featured speakers including John Simmonds, Katya Certic, and Sally Devincenzi.

In the United Kingdom, human trafficking and, more recently, modern slavery has been pushed up the political and policy agenda. At the same time, partnership working has been promoted at international and national levels in order to encourage a more holistic response to trafficking. This article examines the nature of the evidence collected to monitor and evaluate the activities and outcomes of organisations involved in a number of human trafficking partnerships in England and Wales. Underpinning this analysis is the '4 Ps' approach to tackling human trafficking: Prevention, Protection, Prosecution and Partnership. Based on interviews with a variety of actors working in different partner bodies, limitations of evidence in relation to both monitoring activities as well as evaluating outcomes emerged. These relate to inadequate data collection, lack of robust methods of data collection, untested assumptions, the complexity of gathering evidence which reflect human welfare oriented goals, and the sharing of evidence between partner organisations. A key finding is that current data and methods of data collection are inadequate for the purpose of measuring the effectiveness of anti-trafficking initiatives and partnerships. Another key finding is the way in which partnerships challenged received outcomes and expanded their focus beyond victims of trafficking or criminal justice goals. Finally, I explore whether criminal justice outcomes can be leveraged to foster deterrence, by interrogating what evidence might be needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The language of coercion and compulsion entered the criminal law in 2015, with a new offence of "controlling and coercive behavior" and a new defence of "compulsion." Section 76 of the Serious Crime Act 2015 (SCA), introduces the offence of "controlling and coercive behaviour" in an intimate or family relationship recognising the context, circumstances and tactics of domestic violence. Section 45 of the Modern Slavery Act 2015 (MSA), recognises the element of "compulsion " in the commission of a criminal offence and provides a duress like defence for those, who caught in trafficking and slavery, commit criminal offences. In both instances the offence and defence will be very limited, "coercion " because matters of proof and an overly complex provision will make implementation difficult, and "compulsion " because of an attitude towards involuntarism, an overly narrow understanding of reasonable alternatives and a statutory limitation placed on the offences to which the defence can apply. Training and education are required for all statutory agencies and the judges and legal representatives with regard to the role of "coercion " in an intimate or family relationship, and with regard to the part played by a range of circumstances including impoverishment, destitution and juju witchcraft that makes trafficked victims so susceptible to slavery and "compulsion " to commit crimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Young people who have been trafficked may have experienced significant trauma and violence but little is known about their health and healthcare needs. This UK study aimed to address that gap. It included a health survey and qualitative interviews with 29 young people aged 16–21 trafficked into the UK from other countries who were recruited through voluntary organisations and children’s social services. These data were supplemented by interviews with relevant professionals. Over half the young people had been trafficked for sex work but sexual violence had also been experienced by those trafficked for domestic servitude and labour exploitation. Physical violence, threats, restrictions of liberty and deprivation were also widespread, as were experiences of physical and sexual violence prior to being trafficked. Five young women had become pregnant whilst trafficked; three were parents when interviewed. Two-thirds screened positive for high levels of psychological distress, including PTSD. Twelve reported suicidal thinking. Whilst some were keen for opportunities to talk to health professionals confidentially and wanted practitioners to treat their accounts as credible, others wanted to forget abusive experiences. Complex gatekeeping systems, language barriers and practitioners who failed to take them seriously limited access to healthcare. Support and advocacy were helpful in assisting these young people to navigate healthcare systems. Health professionals need to recognise and respond appropriately to trafficked young people’s often complex mental health needs and refer them to relevant services, as well as facilitating care at later times when they might need support or be more ready to receive help. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on evaluating the relationship between Section 45 of the Modern Slavery Act 2015 in Great Britain and the defence of duress. Topics include the common law defence of duress and the new defence both predicated upon compulsion, and Section 45(l)(d) of the Modem Slavery Act 2015 stated to place the focus of the enquiry on whether the defendant had a realistic alternative to committing the offence.

Online news platforms and social media increasingly influence the public agenda on social issues such as human trafficking. Yet despite the popularity of online news and the availability of sophisticated tools for analyzing digital texts, little is known about the relations between news coverage of human trafficking and audiences’ reactions to and interpretations of such coverage. In this paper, we examine journalists’ and commenters’ topic choices in coverage and discussion of human trafficking in the British newspaperThe Guardianfrom 2009 to 2014. We use latent semantic analysis to identify 11 topics discussed by both journalists and readers, and analyze each topic in terms of the degree to which journalists and readers agree or disagree in their topic preferences. We find that four topics were preferred equally by journalists and commenters, four were preferred by journalists, and three were preferred by commenters. Our findings suggest that theories of ‘agenda setting’ and of the ‘active audience’ are not mutually exclusive, and the scope of explanation of each depends partly on the specific topic or subtopic that is analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Across both the UK and the USA, knowledge about the abuse of children and young people through sexual exploitation has developed rapidly over the past decade. Both countries have reached a consensus at the legislative level that victims of child sexual exploitation (CSE) are first and foremost victims of serious sexual forms of abuse. The perpetrators of CSE take advantage of economic, cognitive, social and emotional vulnerability to obtain sex. The exploitation frequently, but not exclusively, involves commercial gain and the presence of the victim's ‘consent' is no longer considered a vindication of such abuse. CSE is above all a cultural phenomenon. It begins with beliefs that normalise or deny the seriousness of the sexual exploitation taking place. This is true not only for the individuals directly involved but also relates to the attitudes held by some professionals. Positioning CSE as illegal and socially unacceptable has to occur not only at the legislative level but also in respect of professional agencies, communities, social networks and families. In practice, protecting young people from sexual exploitation is complex and the subjectivities within professional approaches need to be acknowledged. It is recommended that professionals across social services, policing, health and education receive core training to enable a consistently non‑discriminatory and research‑informed response to CSE. Social workers are well‑placed to lead and co‑ordinate such responses, particularly if there are adequate and effective resources in place. Providing a consistent and trustworthy therapeutic relationship is fundamental to the worker being able to work with a young person affected by CSE. Conclusions are that the domestic sexual exploitation and trafficking discourses developed in the UK and USA could be informative for other countries, such as those of Eastern Europe. Finally, the importance of sharing insights between countries is recommended to make us all better equipped to protect our young people from sexual exploitation and trafficking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]