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There is an urgent need for transformational change in global and UK agriculture. Current practices undermine the long-term future of farming and impoverish ecosystems in the UK and elsewhere. However, change is not happening at the scale and pace which is needed. Work by David Abson, drawing on ideas by Donella Meadows, explored this failure of progress and proposed a research agenda focused on transformational leverage points which influence sustainability. These points are centred on three realms of leverage: reconnecting people to nature, restructuring institutions and rethinking how knowledge is created and used in pursuit of sustainability. In this paper, these ideas are explored through a combined researcher/stakeholder workshop focused on transformational change in UK livestock systems. Workshop participants were asked to discuss and identify potential levers of change under the three realms identified by Abson. The multiplicity of levers identified and the interactions across realms emphasise the need for new kinds of knowledge creation which are highly transdisciplinary, as well as emphasising the complexity of levers which are likely to play a role in the transformation of livestock food systems in the UK and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Approximately a third of all annual greenhouse gas emissions globally are directly or indirectly associated with the food system, and over a half of these are linked to livestock production. In temperate oceanic regions, such as the UK, most meat and dairy is produced in extensive systems based on pasture. There is much interest in the extent to which such grassland may be able to sequester and store more carbon to partially or completely mitigate other greenhouse gas emissions in the system. However, answering this question is difficult due to context-specificity and a complex and sometimes inconsistent evidence base. This paper describes a project that set out to summarize the natural science evidence base relevant to grassland management, grazing livestock and soil carbon storage potential in as policy-neutral terms as possible. It is based on expert appraisal of a systematically assembled evidence base, followed by a wide stakeholders engagement. A series of evidence statements (in the appendix of this paper) are listed and categorized according to the nature of the underlying information, and an annotated bibliography is provided in the electronic supplementary material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is widespread concern that cessation of grazing in historically grazed ecosystems is causing biotic homogenization and biodiversity loss. We used 12 montane grassland sites along an 800 km north–south gradient across the UK, to test whether cessation of grazing affects local α- and β-diversity of below-ground food webs. We show cessation of grazing leads to strongly decreased α-diversity of most groups of soil microbes and fauna, particularly of relatively rare taxa. By contrast, the β-diversity varied between groups of soil organisms. While most soil microbial communities exhibited increased homogenization after cessation of grazing, we observed decreased homogenization for soil fauna after cessation of grazing. Overall, our results indicate that exclusion of domesticated herbivores from historically grazed montane grasslands has far-ranging negative consequences for diversity of below-ground food webs. This underscores the importance of grazers for maintaining the diversity of below-ground communities, which play a central role in ecosystem functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study aims to understand how virtual livestock fences (VFs), introduced to the UK in 2020, were being used and to identify the animal welfare opportunities and challenges of VF systems. VF systems work by training livestock to respect a virtual fence line by pairing an audible warning tone with an electric shock. Semistructured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders (n = 8), including policymakers, leading conservation managers, and regenerative farmers. We found VF systems were utilised in three main settings: 1. Extensive grassland, where physical fences were prohibited or uneconomical, such as national parks or mountains; 2. Conservation grazing, where livestock grazing is primarily used to manage habitat for biodiversity, such as nature reserves; 3. In mob, strip, or rotational grazing systems, where VFs replace physical electric fencing to reduce workload. This study finds that, in extensive settings, VFs can help safeguard livestock from dangers and aid stockpersons to locate and care for animals. However, in restricted settings, VFs are less predictable and controllable for livestock than physical fences, resulting in livestock (cattle) receiving a greater number of electric shocks than experienced with physical electric fences. The use of VFs in a restricted setting poses a significant risk to livestock welfare. Protocols are needed to encourage best practices and help prevent the misuse of VF systems. Virtual fences for livestock facilitated by a GPS shock collar (GPS-SC) and phone app were introduced to the UK in cattle herd trials in 2020. Technology which uses aversive shocks to control livestock movement on farms and in other settings poses a significant risk to livestock welfare. There are currently no welfare protocols in place in the UK to ensure the ethical use of GPS-SCs. The objective of this study was to understand how GPS-SCs were being used in practice in the UK and gather data to assist researchers and policymakers in the future research and development of a welfare protocol for the UK. We studied how the technology performs in terms of welfare challenges and opportunities, covering extensive livestock production, conservation settings, "rewilding", and regenerative farming practices, where the technology is currently being applied. Semistructured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders. In-depth interviews (n = 8) supported the previous literature that the use of GPS-SCs in restricted grazing settings poses a risk to animal welfare. This is due to the wavering virtual fence boundary line (which is affected by satellite movements), a lack of visual markers, and, in some "rewilding" and conservation settings, livestock keepers, which require training and support to enable optimal welfare in practice and prevent misuse of the technology. Results also indicated that there are opportunities for enhancing livestock welfare with GPS-SCs in very extensive farm settings, where targeted care can be facilitated by using the data to monitor and track livestock using GPS-SCs, and which can also prevent cattle injury or fatality through virtual pastures designed to protect livestock from hazards such as roads or bogs. Future research is needed to focus on minimising shocks in the training period and to better understand the value of visual electric fences in the training process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the impacts of the reduction in the network of private kill abattoirs on the delivery of public goods supported under the redesigned UK agriculture policy. An online survey was used to gather information about farmers selection and use of abattoirs, and a telephone survey of abattoir owners and managers complemented the farmer survey. Of the 300 respondents, 185 used abattoirs for private kill retail (PKR) services. 121 of these PKR farmers (65.4%) reported their PKR business as "essential" "or "very important" to the viability of their farm business. Seventy-five (41%) had no alternative abattoir, 21 of these 75 would have to close their PKR business if the abattoir they currently used closed, 22.7% would reduce their grassland area, releasing greenhouse gases, and 30% would stop farming native breeds, reducing the gene pool and conservation grazing environmental management options. 110 PKR farmers did have a viable alternative abattoir, but using it would increase livestock journeys, increasing greenhouse gas emissions and making it more likely farmers would need to use commercial rather than farm transport, further jeopardising animal welfare and biosecurity. Therefore, the continuing closure of private kill services threatens core government policy objectives. However, private kill services could be supported by government grant schemes, resolving confusion regarding food labelling, and reducing small abattoir costs by introducing "de minimis" derogation – as currently used on some Channel Island and mainland Europe abattoirs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies across different agroecosystems worldwide have compared the effects of single soil tillage events to no-till on soil carbon (C) stocks. Yet, there is still significant uncertainty about how the frequency of 'tillage + reseeding' (e.g. number of reseeding events) might affect soil C stocks in agricultural grasslands in the long term. Here, we addressed this knowledge gap by sampling for the first time 500 grassland fields in Northern Ireland, UK, based on their management history including the number of tillage and reseeding events occurred in the previous 50 years. We show that soil C and N stocks within 0–30-cm depth were not significantly affected by the frequency of 'tillage + reseeding' events. We found, however, that soil C (%) and N (%) concentrations significantly decreased while soil bulk density increased with the frequency of soil till + grassland reseeding. Because soil C stocks are calculated by multiplying C (%) with bulk density, the opposite response of these two key factors has possibly contributed to 'homogenise' the soil C stock product partly explaining the lack of a significant relationship between soil C stocks and the frequency of soil till + reseeding events. Our evidence is that the most important variable affecting soil C (%) concentration was bulk density and thus soil compaction. We also show that grasslands mainly managed for grazing are significantly less tilled and reseeded and have soils with lower bulk density and higher C (%) than grasslands managed for silage production. Our findings suggest that while increases in the frequency of tillage and reseeding can negatively affect soil C (%), the soil C storage potential of agricultural grasslands can be more affected by increases in soil compaction associated with greater machinery traffic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A commonly promoted view is that in the absence of driven grouse moor management in the UK uplands, land use on moorland would default to agriculture or afforestation. This forum article questions the orthodoxy of this thinking, discusses alternative scenarios for land use in the uplands and considers the potential effects of these on moorland‐breeding birds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Degradation of soil in the United Kingdom (UK) is compromising the ecosystem services that flow from this natural capital asset, including water flow regulation. Soil compacted by grazing livestock, for example, results in an increase in overland flow following rainfall and is thought to be one of the key factors contributing to increased severity of UK winter flooding in recent years. Practical farm‐scale changes in livestock management that lead to improvements in water flow regulation therefore need to be identified. This pilot study aimed to assess the impact of (i) changing stocking composition, and (ii) temporary grazing exclusions, on soil natural capital quality on a sheep and beef cattle farm in Northumberland, England. I found evidence of improved soil bulk density under mixed sheep and cattle grazing compared to cattle‐only grazing over a 3‐month summer grazing season; bulk density in 'cattle‐only' pastures increased from 0.836 to 0.875 g cm−3 from June to September 2017, compared with a small decrease of 0.875–0.871 g cm−3 in 'cattle to mixed sheep and cattle' pastures (difference significant at p <.05 level). Changing from sheep‐only grazing to mixed grazing, and exclusion of grazing, did not significantly influence bulk density change (p >.05). This study indicates that rapid improvements in soil physical properties can be achieved through realistic changes to livestock management. If this finding can be confirmed over multiple grazing seasons, this potentially offers a straightforward means to enhance soil health on grazed land in the UK, improving delivery of water flow regulation and other ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of 445 pasture samples were collected from six fields representing a wide range of dry grass content (0–100%), and grass, legume, herb, flower and weed species. Fields were located in the grass‐dominated and temperate regions of western UK and monitored monthly for 9 months during late summer, autumn and winter months. The pasture properties assessed included measurements of percentage of grass content, height (in centimeters), pasture cover (fresh weight (FW) and dry matter (DM) in kg /ha) and pasture density (FW and DM in kg ha−1cm−1) and nutrient concentrations (DM, crude protein, acid detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), sugars, ash, digestible organic matter in the DM (DOMD), oil, nitrate nitrogen and metabolizable energy (ME)). This study showed that across the pastures studied, increasing both pasture height and DM cover brought a desirable increase in crude protein, sugars, DOMD, oil and ME for grazing systems. Seasonal changes in nutrient concentrations of diverse swards will occur; however, differences in nutrient concentrations among swards can be minimized by the grass species present and/or mix with broadleaf plants, and management of grass maturity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Intensive livestock grazing has been associated with an increased risk of soil erosion and concomitant negative impacts on the ecological status of watercourses. Whilst various mitigation options are promoted for reducing livestock impacts, there is a paucity of data on the relationship between stocking rates and quantified sediment losses. This evidence gap means there is uncertainty regarding the cost–benefit of policy preferred best management. Methods: Sediment yields from 15 hydrologically isolated field scale catchments on a heavily instrumented ruminant livestock farm in the south west UK were investigated over ~ 26 months spread across 6 years. Sediment yields were compared to cattle and sheep stocking rates on long-term, winter (November–April), and monthly timescales. The impacts of livestock on soil vegetation cover and bulk density were also examined. Cattle were tracked using GPS collars to determine how grazing related to soil damage. Results: No observable impact of livestock stocking rates of 0.15–1.00 UK livestock units (LU) ha−1 for sheep, and 0–0.77 LU ha−1 for cattle on sediment yields was observed at any of the three timescales. Cattle preferentially spent time close to specific fences where soils were visually damaged. However, there was no indication that livestock have a significant effect on soil bulk density on a field scale. Livestock were housed indoors during winters when most rainfall occurs, and best management practices were used which when combined with low erodibility clayey soils likely limited sediment losses. Conclusion: A combination of clayey soils and soil trampling in only a small proportion of the field areas lead to little impact from grazing livestock. Within similar landscapes with best practice livestock grazing management, additional targeted measures to reduce erosion are unlikely to yield a significant cost-benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Excess sediment loss from land used by grazing ruminant farms assessed. • Modern background sediment loss rates of 0.20−0.35 t ha−1 yr−1 used as targets. • Instrumented farm platform data suggested losses up to 0.50 t ha−1 yr−1. • Modelled scaling out returned exceedances of up to >0.20 t ha−1 yr−1. • Current advisory measures cannot reduce sediment loss to the target rates. Water quality impairment by elevated sediment loss is a pervasive problem for global water resources. Sediment management targets identify exceedance or the sediment loss 'gap' requiring mitigation. In the UK, palaeo-limnological reconstruction of sediment loss during the 100–150 years pre-dating the post-World War II intensification of agriculture, has identified management targets (0.20−0.35 t ha−1 yr−1) representing 'modern background sediment delivery to rivers'. To assess exceedance on land for grazing ruminant farming, an integrated approach combined new mechanistic evidence from a heavily-instrumented experimental farm platform and a scaling out framework of modelled commercial grazing ruminant farms in similar environmental settings. Monitoring (2012–2016) on the instrumented farm platform returned sediment loss ranges of 0.11−0.14 t ha−1 yr−1 and 0.21−0.25 t ha−1 yr-1 on permanent pasture, compared with between 0.19−0.23 t ha−1 yr-1 and 0.43−0.50 t ha−1 yr−1and 0.10−0.13 t ha−1 yr−1and 0.25−0.30 t ha−1 yr-1 on pasture with scheduled plough and reseeds. Excess sediment loss existed on all three farm platform treatments but was more extensive on the two treatments with scheduled plough and reseeds. Excessive sediment loss from land used by grazing ruminant farming more strategically across England, was estimated to be up to >0.2 t ha−1 yr−1. Modelled scenarios of alternative farming futures, based on either increased uptake of interventions typically recommended by visual farm audits, or interventions selected using new mechanistic understanding for sediment loss from the instrumented farm platform, returned minimum sediment loss reductions. On the farm platform these were 2.1 % (up to 0.007 t ha−1 yr−1) and 5.1 % (up to 0.018 t ha−1 yr-1). More strategically, these were up to 2.8 % (0.014 t ha−1 yr−1) and 4.1 % (0.023 t ha−1 yr−1). Conventional on-farm measures will therefore not fully mitigate the sediment loss gap, meaning that more severe land cover change is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme rainfall and flood events are predicted to increase in frequency and severity as a consequence of anthropogenic climate change. In UK upland areas, historical over‐grazing and associated soil compaction have further exacerbated peak flood levels and flash‐flood risk along many river catchments. As a result, the reinstatement of upland woodland is increasingly seen as a key component of an integrated suite of options forming part of natural flood management (NFM) associated with a 'public money for public goods' approach to European agriculture. Nevertheless, understanding the impact of native woodland establishment on upland soil hydrology remains relatively poor. We compare physical and hydrological properties from the surface soils of establishing woodland and grazed pasture across four flood vulnerable upland headwater catchments in Dartmoor National Park, SW England. We show upland native woodland establishment is a viable soil recovery option, with a doubling of soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, increased 'wetness threshold' and reduced surface soil compaction and bulk density within 15 years of establishment. Our study supports the establishment of native woodland as an effective tool to improve the hydrological functioning of soils in upland pastoral catchments and the provision of flash‐flood mitigation 'ecosystem services'. We caution, however, that land managers and policymakers must consider past and present management, soil type and catchment location when planning new NFM schemes if environmental benefits are to be maximised and 'public money for public goods, are to be commensurate with outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions: How do changes in grazing impact functional traits in habitat mosaics? Which habitats are sensitive to management changes? Location: Mosaic of open upland habitats, including Agrostis–Festucaand Nardus grasslands, Carex and Molinia mires, bracken and wet heath, southern Highlands of Scotland, UK. Methods: Four grazing treatments were started in 2002: (a) Continued grazing at 0.9 ewe/ha (control); (2) High — 2.7 ewe/ha; (c) Mixed — partial substitution of sheep by cattle; and (d) None. Vegetation was sampled at 25 permanently marked locations per plot every three years. Analysis assessed how grazing affected community‐weighted means of selected traits at the whole plot level and community level. Results: Whole plot level changes in trait means were negligible apart from a small reduction in height in the High and Mixed treatments and a shift to earlier flowering in the High treatment. At the community level, increased grazing generally led to a reduction in canopy height and earlier flowering. Both increased and reduced grazing reduced leaf dry matter content (LDMC) in the most preferred community, Agrostis–Festucagrassland, but reduced grazing increased LDMC in the least preferred community, wet heath. Cattle grazing reduced LDMC in both Agrostis–Festucagrassland and wet heath and reduced height in bracken. Conclusions: Despite significant changes in grazing there were only small changes in trait means over 15 years. The most preferred communities were less sensitive to grazing removal than expected; few species present can take advantage of reduced grazing. The least preferred communities were more sensitive to grazing removal than expected; they still contain species capable of exploiting this. The presence of more preferred communities in each plot meant increased grazing has less impact on communities of moderate and low preference. Cattle impacts were highest in the communities most sensitive to trampling, bracken and wet heath. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflicting views between the dairy industry and the public about how dairy cows should be managed, together with an increase in the availability of alternatives to dairy foods, challenge future markets for milk producers. Members of the public value animal welfare as well as naturalness and grazing, but neither the relative importance of specific aspects of management nor the diversity of views underlying these preferences have been established. To better understand these issues, 2,054 UK citizens recruited through a research panel took part in an online survey. They were asked to rank 17 attributes relating to dairy cow management and milk production through the novel application of best–worst scaling, a discrete choice methodology that allows a trade-off between items. Hierarchical Bayesian analysis of the results revealed 3 attributes of equal top importance: (1) access to grazing, (2) cow health and welfare, and (3) cow comfort. Alongside this overarching ranking, underlying differences in preferences were identified in 6 approximately equally sized citizen groups within the sample, which were identified through latent class analysis. Each latent class expressed significantly different priorities from the other, and each had different indicative sociodemographic, attitudinal, experiential, and value-oriented characteristics, as established through a multinomial logistic model. If the diversity of preference between the citizen groups found in the sample is reflected within wider populations, there may be opportunities for the dairy industry to improve communication about positive practices, develop new dairy product markets, and consider changes to dairy farming systems to better meet different citizens' needs. Furthermore, the defining characteristics and priorities of each group raise the question of whether grazing in particular, but also other attributes presented within the study, is understood in different ways by different subgroups of citizens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marginal agricultural land, which in the UK refers to upland grazings in particular, is going to see changes in management driven by markets, subsidies, grants and environmental change with implications for biodiversity.Using a large‐scale, long‐term grazing experiment in the UK uplands we assessed the impact of intensification (tripling sheep numbers), abandonment (removal of sheep) and grazer diversification (partial replacement of sheep by cattle) on vegetation composition in a heterogenous area of grassland.Species benefiting from increased grazing included sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), mat grass (Nardus stricta) and deer grass (Trichophorum cespitosum). Species that benefitted from the removal of grazing included bog asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum), bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) and blaeberry (Vaccinium myrtillus).Responses differed between vegetation communities; more productive acid grassland communities showed little change when grazing was removed, whilst less productive mire communities contained species, capable of increasing after grazing removal. Increased grazing and, to a lesser extent, the introduction of cattle increased species diversity.Synthesis and applications. Marginal agricultural grassland will likely see management change driven by markets, subsidies and environmental change. Vegetation change in these relatively infertile grasslands is slow and features shuffling dominance amongst species in the initial vegetation. Initial structural changes affect other trophic levels in this experiment; the slow change in composition will affect the system over longer timescales. Management decisions in the uplands encompass complex trade‐offs between production, biodiversity and a range of ecosystem services. Predicting the consequences of decisions is difficult given the slow dynamics of unproductive habitats. Marginal agricultural grassland will likely see management change driven by markets, subsidies and environmental change. Vegetation change in these relatively infertile grasslands is slow and features shuffling dominance amongst species in the initial vegetation. Initial structural changes affect other trophic levels in this experiment; the slow change in composition will affect the system over longer timescales. Management decisions in the uplands encompass complex trade‐offs between production, biodiversity and a range of ecosystem services. Predicting the consequences of decisions is difficult given the slow dynamics of unproductive habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite growing concerns about the welfare of horses in Great Britain (GB) there has been little surveillance of the welfare status of the horse population. Consequently we have limited knowledge of the range of welfare problems experienced by horses in GB and the situations in which poor welfare occurs. Thirty-one in-depth interviews were conducted with a cross -section of equine stakeholders, in order to explore their perceptions of the welfare problems faced by horses in GB. Welfare problems relating to health, management and riding and training were identified, including horses being under or over weight, stabling 24 hours a day and the inappropriate use of training aids. The interviewees also discussed broader contexts in which they perceived that welfare was compromised. The most commonly discussed context was where horses are kept in unsuitable environments, for example environments with poor grazing. The racing industry and travellers horses were identified as areas of the industry where horse welfare was particularly vulnerable to compromise. Lack of knowledge and financial constraints were perceived to be the root cause of poor welfare by many interviewees. The findings give insight into the range of welfare problems that may be faced by horses in GB, the contexts in which these may occur and their possible causes. Many of the problems identified by the interviewees have undergone limited scientific investigation pointing to areas where further research is likely to be necessary for welfare improvement. The large number of issues identified suggests that some form of prioritisation may be necessary to target research and resources effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we have demonstrated that rising background ozone has the potential to reduce grassland forage quality and explored the implications for livestock production. We analysed pasture samples from seven ozone exposure experiments comprising mesotrophic, calcareous, haymeadow and sanddune unimproved grasslands conducted in open-top chambers, solardomes and a field release system. Across all grassland types, there were significant increases in acid detergent fibre, crude fibre and lignin content with increasing ozone concentration, resulting in decreased pasture quality in terms of the metabolisable energy content of the vegetation. We derived a dose-response function for metabolisable energy of the grassland with ozone concentration, applicable to a range of grassland types, and used this to predict effects on pasture quality of UK vegetation at 1 km resolution using modelled ozone data for 2007 and for predicted higher average ozone concentrations in 2020. This showed a potential total reduction in lamb production in the UK of approximately 4% in 2020 compared to 2007. The largest impacts were in geographical areas of modest ozone increases between the two years, but where large numbers of lambs were present. For an individual farmer working to a very small cost margin this could represent a large reduction in profit, both in regions where the impacts per lamb and those where the impacts per km 2 of grazing land are largest. In the short term farmers could adapt their lamb management in response to changed forage quality by additional supplementary feed of high metabolisable energy content. Nationally this increase in annual additional feed in 2020 compared to 2007 would be 2,166 tonnes (an increase of 0.7%). Of added concern are the longer-term consequences of continual deterioration of pasture quality and the implications for changes in farming practices to compensate for potential reductions in livestock production capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally important U.K. fens are in poor condition, principally due to abandonment, following cessation of traditional mowing and grazing in recent decades. In the absence of management, rich fen flora are displaced as a result of succession. This leads to an increase in competitive species and subsequent biomass accumulation. In order to reverse this trajectory and increase species richness, management consisting of a single mowing event was employed. Mowing was conducted in two degraded fen communities in north-west Wales (U.K.) across three sites: (i) a species rich, tussock alkaline mire, dominated by Schoenus nigricans and Juncus subnodulosus (SN community) and (ii) a species poor basin mire Cladio-Molinietum dominated by Cladium mariscus (CM community). The early vegetation responses were monitored over two years. Results show a large treatment effect on species richness in the CM community, where mean species richness increased by 51% in the second year following mowing. Consequently, total species number across all sites increased to 74 in the treatment compared to 44 in the control. Mowing reduced vegetation height and litter cover and increased bare ground. These treatment effects combined with a reduction in graminoid and shrub cover collectively contributed to the initial stages of rehabilitation. Conversely, the SN community showed no increase in species richness, in spite of a reduction in litter cover and increased bare ground. Strong site heterogeneity and a sustained canopy height caused by rapid re-growth of the dominant graminoid S. nigricans may have impeded treatment effects. Therefore, increased mowing frequency in alternate years, switching between autumn and summer would be necessary to develop species richness in the SN community. Ongoing intervention in each fen community is needed to achieve an optimal trajectory of increased rich fen and reduction of secondary succession species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Outbreaks of cattle lungworm disease (Dictyocaulus viviparus) are explosive and costly. The unpredictability of the disease often encourages farmers to apply blanket anthelmintic treatments to the herd, which impede the acquisition of immunity, increase the risk of drug resistance, and interfere with efforts to reduce anthelmintic use against ubiquitous gastrointestinal nematodes. Improving our understanding of the factors which lead to a high risk of infection with lungworm, (including climatic pressure), would support a more targeted management. We present GLOWORM-FL-DV, the first mathematical model of the free–living stages of D. viviparus. The ecology of D. viviparus is unique compared with other strongylid nematodes due to its relationship with Pilobilus spp. fungi, which enhance the transmission potential. The role of the fungi was therefore incorporated into the model framework, informed by laboratory observations of Pilobolus spp. development and sporulation. The thermal niche of D. viviparus was characterised based on published and laboratory observations. Mortality of parasitic larvae increased significantly below 0oC, and larval development occurred above 1.4oC, whereas the estimated minimum temperature for migration via Pilobolus spp. was 8.8oC. Model predictions were compared with antibody levels in bulk milk tank samples collected at two-weekly intervals from eight dairy herds across Great Britain over two grazing seasons. The model predicted high levels of larval abundance on pasture 46 days (38–52 days) before a rise in antibody levels and 22–26 days before the onset of clinical signs. The model assesses the impact of climate and weather on lungworm larval availability at pasture and provides a framework for the development of a risk forecasting system. This could help to focus vigilance for clinical signs at high-risk times and facilitate the targeted use of anthelmintics to prevent outbreaks, in support of sustainable parasite control. • Outbreaks due to Dictyocaulus viviparus are explosive, unpredictable and costly. • This is the first mathematical model of the bovine lungworm on pasture. • We accurately predict the timing of high and low risk periods for grazing cattle. • This model could help vets and dairy farmers to develop targeted treatment plans. • Future work could highlight the impact of climate change on parasite transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. The DEFRA ecosystem services framework was implemented in an entomological context to provide preliminary estimates of the economic value of four key ecosystem service benefits delivered by dung beetles ( Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Geotrupidae) to the U.K. cattle industry and individual cattle farmers. These benefits included (i) reduced pest flies; (ii) reduced gastrointestinal parasites; (iii) reduced pasture fouling and (iv) increased soil nutrients. 2. A mesocosm experiment was carried out to quantify the impacts of anthelmintic treatment on dung removal by dung beetles when (i) cattle were excreting anthelmintics (which affect dung beetles) in a sufficient concentration to impact dung beetles and (ii) when cattle were not excreting dung containing anthelmintics (which affect dung beetles) in a sufficient concentration to impact dung beetles. 3. Inferring from our mesocosm experiment and existing data, the value of the benefits of dung beetles under current farming practices (and current anthelmintic usage) was estimated. We estimated the potential economic benefits if dung beetles were protected (i) under all entry-level agri-environment schemes; (ii) under organic schemes; or (iii) if farmers stopped treating adult cattle with anthelmintics during the grazing season. 4. While these estimates are preliminary, and should not be treated as definitive values, we suggest that dung beetles may be currently saving the U.K. cattle industry c. £367 million each year: c. £354 million in conventional systems and c. £13 million in organic systems. Annual benefits per cow are greater in organic systems (£43.47) compared with conventional systems (£37.42). 5. Protecting dung beetles under agri-environment schemes could save the U.K. cattle industry an additional £40.2 million year−1 (£4.36 per cow), while protecting dung beetles under organic schemes could save £378 k year−1 (£1.26 per cow). The cessation of, largely unnecessary, treatment of adult cattle with anthelmintics could save the U.K. cattle industry an additional £6.2 million year−1 (£1.40 per cow) in addition to savings on the anthelmintics themselves. 6. These estimates are based on a large number of underlying assumptions and, thus, may be overestimating or underestimating the economic value of ecosystem services delivered by dung beetles. 7. The potential for using the DEFRA ecosystem services framework in an entomological context is highlighted. These estimates emphasise the contribution of dung beetles as key Ecosystem Service Providers ( ESP's) within the U.K. cattle sector and, by extension, emphasise the importance of valuing supporting ecosystem services derived from invertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herbivory plays a significant role in regulating many contemporary terrestrial plant ecosystems, but remains an imperfectly understood component of past ecosystem dynamics because the diagnostic capability of methods is still being tested and refined. To understand the efficacy of a multiproxy approach, we compare the sensitivity of pollen and coprophilous fungal spores (CFS) to changes in grazing intensity over the last 100–150 years in six peat cores from three UK upland areas, and apply faecal lipid biomarkers to two of the cores, using agricultural census data to calculate an independent record of herbivore density. Rising sheep density adversely affected moorland ecology over the last century, which therefore provides a suitable period to test the sensitivity of these proxies. In particular, we assess whether CFS can be used to track variations in large herbivore densities over time, since this has received less attention than their ability to identify high grazing levels. At selected sites, we test whether faecal lipid biomarkers can be used to identify which herbivore species were present. Our results highlight the differential sensitivity of each proxy, demonstrating on peat- and moorlands (i) that peak CFS abundance is a more consistent indicator of ecologically influential (high) herbivore levels than variations in animal density through time; (ii) when recorded with high CFS values, the decline or disappearance of grazing-tolerant pollen taxa is a reliable indicator of high herbivory; and (iii) at low herbivore densities, faecal lipid biomarkers are not an effective indicator of herbivore presence or identity. Quantitative reconstructions of past herbivory and identifying grazer species therefore remain challenging. However, our findings indicate that pollen and CFS provide complementary evidence for high intensity grazing, and emphasise that studies using CFS should aim to define 'high' herbivore levels in terms of the grazing sensitivity of the ecosystem, rather than relative animal abundance. • Compares sensitivity of pollen, dung fungi and faecal lipids to grazing on peat. • Agricultural census data provide a 100–150 year record of herbivore density. • Fungal spore levels more sensitive to high ecological impact than animal density. • Pollen and dung fungi are complementary indicators of ecologically high herbivory. • Faecal lipid biomarkers are an ineffective proxy on peat at low herbivore densities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal wetlands such as saltmarshes support local communities and industries through ecosystem services and benefit the well-being of local communities in many regions of the world. Along sheltered temperate and sub-tropical coastlines, saltmarshes provide coastal protection, provision of recreational space and wildlife habitat. Those in northwest Europe provide a valuable resource for local agricultural communities through livestock grazing. Following the departure of the UK from the EU and the related potential changes to agricultural policies and markets, it is timely to evaluate the status of saltmarsh livestock grazing. In particular, knowledge of grazing patterns, policy futures and stakeholder perceptions are required to support traditional cultural practice and the ecological status of saltmarshes. This study focuses on the devolved UK nation of Wales, as it has a strong traditional agricultural and pastoral economy, and a landscape of significant conservation value. Yet there are substantial evidence and knowledge gaps regarding livestock grazing and its saltmarsh impact. We present the first map showing the spatial distribution of saltmarsh grazing practice in the UK. Drawing on insights gathered through an expert workshop and interviews with saltmarsh landowners and managers across Wales (N = 35), the paper discusses the challenges and benefits of coastal grazing on saltmarshes, highlighting the diverse values, personal connection and sense of identity associated with marshes. Interviews reveal deep rooted social and cultural values attributed to saltmarshes by the rural coastal community. The study illustrates the need for an integrated approach to management of saltmarshes, accounting for the social, cultural, economic, and environmental values within decision-making. • Stakeholder interviews explore complexity of saltmarsh agriculture in Wales. • Current grazing intensity and patterns are mapped and discussed. • Emphasis is on the personal connection and sense of identity associated with saltmarshes. • Need for integration of diverse values within saltmarsh management is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To develop an evidence base to help predict the impacts of land management change on flood generation, four experimental sites were established on improved grassland used for sheep grazing at the Pontbren catchment in upland Wales, UK. At each site, three plots were established where surface runoff was measured, supplemented by measurements of soil infiltration rates and soil and vegetation physical properties. Following baseline monitoring, treatments were applied to two of the plots: exclusion of sheep (ungrazed) and exclusion of sheep and planting with native broadleaf tree species (tree planted), with the third plot acting as a control (grazed pasture). Due to a particularly dry summer that occurred pre-treatment, the soil hydrological responses were initially impacted by the effects of the climate on soil structure. Nevertheless, treatments did have a clear influence on soil hydrological response. On average, post-treatment runoff volumes were reduced by 48% and 78% in ungrazed and tree-planted plots relative to the control, although all results varied greatly over the sites. Five years following treatment application, near-surface soil bulk density was reduced and median soil infiltration rates were 67 times greater in plots planted with trees compared to grazed pasture. The results illustrate the potential use of upland land management for ameliorating local-scale flood generation but emphasise the need for long-term monitoring to more clearly separate the effects of land management from those of climatic variability. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Upland heathland is an internationally important habitat but a large area in the UK has been degraded to acid grassland by intensive livestock grazing. Re-establishment of dwarf shrubs, particularly Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull, is a key objective for restoring heathland on these sites. A replicated plot-scale experiment was set up to examine effects of disturbance and seed addition on C. vulgaris establishment in a Nardus stricta L. grassland under three grazing regimes: sheep only (1.5ewesha−1 for 10 months per year); cattle only (0.5heifersha−1 in summer only); and, the cattle regime combined with sheep (1.0ewesha−1 for 10 months per year). Early results of the experiment have been reported previously but it was not known if these results were an indication of the longer-term restoration success. Here we evaluate the success of the restoration methods (disturbance, seeding treatments and grazing regime) eight years after the treatments began. In seeded plots, young C. vulgaris plants had greatest above-ground height, dry weight and shoot length if grazing was excluded or the cattle-only regime was applied. C. vulgaris cover was greatest, and increased most, in plots that had been disturbed, seeded and ungrazed or subjected to the cattle-only regime. The vegetation in these plots also became more similar to reference sites with 50% or more cover of C. vulgaris. The invasive Juncus effusus L. was more frequent in disturbed and grazed plots but less frequent in plots with C. vulgaris established from added seed. Previous results that showed the benefits of disturbance and seeding treatments were still valid but changes in the vegetation composition were still occurring and longer-term studies will be needed to determine when grazing regimes including sheep might be reintroduced. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Since the deregulation of sheep scab in 1992, the number of scab outbreaks per year in the UK has increased rapidly; there has been an estimated 60-fold increase in outbreak incidence between 1992 and 2007. How best to focus management or eradication efforts has therefore been an issue of ongoing debate. Previous work has shown that scab outbreaks occur repeatedly on some farms whereas others never or rarely experience outbreaks. Here, to consider why this pattern occurs, and to quantify the risk of scab associated with different husbandry practices, face-to-face interviews with farmers at 16, randomly selected, repeat-outbreak farms and 16 matched farms with no or little history of scab over the previous 10 years, were used to identify associated risk factors. This showed that farms using common grazing were at significantly higher risk of infestation than farms not using common grazing, as were farms that had direct contact with neighbours’ sheep and that had neighbours with scab. To further demonstrate the risk of common grazing, a survey of sheep on one common in south Wales showed that there was significant mixing of sheep from three farms, highlighting the potential for scab transmission between flocks. Common grazing, associated with upland regions, would appear to be the largest single obstacle to effective national scab control in the UK. The results suggest that a cost-effective approach to scab control may be to consider upland and lowland farms as separate epidemiological systems, with upland regions requiring a co-ordinated, systematic approach to achieve any significant management of the problem. In contrast, on lowland farms outbreaks are already largely contained effectively through good biosecurity and treated on a case-by-case basis if they occur. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: One of the “Five Freedoms” proposed by the Farm Animal Welfare Council in Great Britain is that animals should be free to express normal behaviour. For various domesticated species, the study of still-existing wild ancestors has been one approach in the definition of normal. However, for domesticated cattle, no such wild ancestor exists, so the best that can be done is to study domesticated cattle in environments with little human interference. While several studies have been made of the behaviour of cattle under such conditions, no critical review of the literature has been published. This is the purpose of this paper. While it is surprising that no such review has been undertaken, given its usefulness in the study of the welfare of cattle, what is more surprising is that only 22 studies, published during the period 1927–2009, were considered for inclusion in the review. From the review, it can be concluded that cattle have quite an extensive repertoire of behaviour, comprising 40 identifiable categories and that, of all of the behaviours in their repertoire, grazing is the most common followed, generally, by ruminating and resting. In general, these three categories take up 90–95% of an animal''s day. The review also showed that most grazing is performed during the hours of daylight, with very little grazing is observed at night. However, there were exceptions where considerable grazing was observed at night. Furthermore, the greater part of rumination occurred while animals were lying rather than standing and, although the information was scant, ruminating and resting tended to occur at night rather than during the day. Finally, cattle generally follow a diurnal rhythm characterised by peaks of grazing activity associated with sunrise and sunset. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The recognition of Mesolithic impacts in mid Holocene pollen diagrams of the British Isles has led to the development of models describing sophisticated woodland management, particularly through the use of fire, by Mesolithic populations. However, the significance of human agency in creating mid Holocene woodland disturbances is unclear, with natural and human-induced clearings arguably indistinguishable in the pollen record. Analysis of non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs) should aid the identification of events and processes occurring within these woodland disturbances and provide more precise palaeoecological data. In this paper we present pollen, charcoal and NPP analyses from a potentially critical location in the Mesolithic impacts debate. NPP types aid significantly in the reconstructions, suggesting periods of dead wood, grazing, local burning and wetter ground conditions. The results indicate that between 7700 and 6800 cal b.p., a predominantly wooded environment periodically gave way to phases of more open woodland, with inconsistent evidence for animal grazing. From 6800 cal b.p., a phase of open woodland associated with high charcoal concentrations and indicators of grazing was observed. This probably represents the deliberate firing of vegetation to improve grazing and browse resources, although it remains unclear whether fire was responsible for initially creating the woodland opening, or if it was part of an opportunistic use of naturally occurring woodland clearings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objective of the present study was to measure emissions of N2O from fertilized grazed grassland that can be used to add valuable information to the limited existing data on N2O fluxes from grazed grassland and aid the development of new country-specific EFs for direct emissions from soils in the UK. This was done by evaluating the effect on N2O emissions of inorganic fertiliser N applied to grazed grassland soils over the range of N inputs 0–350kgha−1. Nitrous oxide fluxes were measured using closed static chambers at 3 sites in England and Wales over a two-year period. Cumulative fluxes were calculated and the total emission regressed against applied inorganic fertiliser N in order to estimate the emission factor for N2O emissions from soils. The data showed that, the emission factor for N2O from inorganic fertiliser applied to grazed grassland soils in the UK differs from the IPCC default value of 1.25%. A nonlinear response of N2O emissions to fertiliser N application rates was observed. Annual emissions of N2O were estimated from a modelled function fitted to the measured data and after subtraction of the background flux resulted in emissions of 0.5 and 3.9kgN2O–Nha−1 yr−1 for an application of 100kg N for three locations in the UK, one in the East and the other two in the West of the UK (after combining the data from two sites), respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper assesses the suitability of data from the 1930s First Land Utilisation Survey maps to be used as a baseline against which to consider agricultural land use change over time in a small area of East Sussex, England. The working field sheets are compared with the corrected and published 1:63,360 maps for the same area and differences of around 15 per cent of the total area are identified. The categories of Heath and Rough Grazing, and Meadow and Grassland seem to have caused particular difficulties for the original surveyors, as it is these which have most often been reclassified between the field sheets and one inch maps. Comparison of the Heath and Rough Grazing figures with data from the agricultural census suggests that the field sheets may in fact be the more correct representation of land use at the time, and this throws into question the use of the 1:63,360 maps as the definitive version of the survey. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary: The burning of heather and grass to maintain a mosaic of different aged vegetation stands is a widespread management practice in the uplands of the UK. However, there is concern that burning also releases dissolved organic carbon (DOC) into drinking water supplies. This study was based on a long term experiment examining different rotational burning cycles and grazing intensities on upland vegetation. The study aimed to understand the effect these management practices have on water quality both in the long term and in the short term following a managed burn. The study has found that: [1.] At the end of a burn cycle, DOC concentrations in soil water or runoff water are not significantly affected by burning treatment. However colour (absorbance at 400nm) was found to be significantly lower on 20 year burn plots than unburnt controls. [2.] In the weeks following the burn there were peaks in DOC concentration and colour in the soil water of burnt plots compared to unburnt controls but these peaks were short lived and neither DOC concentrations nor colour were significantly elevated 1 year after burning. [3.] The composition of the DOC in soil water and runoff water is not affected by burning treatment; rather, the variation in data is controlled by time of sampling and season. [4.] Values for three carbon parameters (absorbance at 400nm, DOC concentration and specific absorbance) are significantly lower in runoff water than soil water. [5.] Grazing does not significantly affect carbon parameters in soil water at the end of a burn cycle however grazing effects can be seen in runoff water at the end of a 10-year burn cycle. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Chalkhill Blue Polyommatus coridon is a widespread butterfly of lowland calcareous grassland in southern Britain and is considered a good indicator of habitat condition. Polyommatus coridon has been identified as a Species of Conservation Concern in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan due to a greater than 25% decline in range size since the 1950s, with losses due to the combined effects of habitat destruction, agricultural intensification and neglect. Analysis of annual butterfly monitoring data (transects) collected at 161 sites from 1981 to 2000 show a three-fold population recovery had occurred. The increases were at established sites, with no re-colonisations or range expansion detected. The 1980s population increase coincided with increases across the species range in stock and rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus grazing, as well as greater protection and management of sites through protected areas and nature reserves. During the 1990s agri-environment schemes were thought to be the main conservation and policy mechanism driving the favourable conservation status of P. coridon, by facilitating appropriate habitat restoration and management. Weather played a part in the species recovery, with warm, but wet summers associated with increases in abundance. The research provides strong evidence of an important conservation success with the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, with implications for other specialist biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upland wet heaths in the UK are of international conservation significance but high grazing pressure by sheep has caused widespread degradation. Restoration by reducing sheep numbers is not always successful if competitive grasses such as Molinia caerulea become dominant. Cattle can reduce grass biomass but their utility as a conservation tool is also dependent on economic viability. This study assessed the effect of two sheep-only and two mixed cattle-plus-sheep grazing regimes on vegetation and livestock performance over 4 years at a system scale on a 103ha heterogeneous degraded wet heath. Grazing regimes were sheep all year at 1.5 or 0.66ewesha−1 with 25% removed in winter, with or without dry Continental cross suckler cows at 0.75cowsha−1 for up to 10 weeks in summer. In mixed grazing paddocks, M. caerulea cover declined substantially in vegetation types where it was abundant. Calluna vulgaris declined slightly in the mixed grazing paddocks, primarily because of localised trampling. M. caerulea increased in the sheep-only paddocks and C. vulgaris declined slightly despite low grazing indices. Other changes in plant community composition were minor. Cow daily liveweight gains were adequate to regain body condition prior to calving, but these and ewe mating weights and lamb weaning weights were lower in paddocks with 1.5 than 0.66ewesha−1. Ewe and lamb performance were similar in mixed and sheep-only paddocks at each ewe stocking rate. Cows can be grazed with sheep to remove M. caerulea biomass without detriment to livestock performance, although the stocking levels used in this study would not be sustainable every year. Despite reduction of M. caerulea biomass, there was no evidence that heathland vegetation was being restored after 4 years. Restoration by grazing alone probably requires longer timescales and agri-environment schemes should avoid prescribing stocking levels regardless of livestock species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

1. Livestock grazing is the most important direct management impact on grasslands in upland areas of the UK. For phytophagous species, such as Lepidoptera, the impact is primarily through grazing altering the species composition and structure of the vegetation. However, specific impacts related to different grazing regimes are not well understood for this group of insects. 2. Within a replicated controlled grazing experiment, nocturnal adult moths were sampled by light trapping in the fifth year after establishment. Sampling effort was standardised between the four grazing treatments by simultaneously using identical traps in each treatment. 3. The highest-intensity grazing treatment produced the lowest moth abundance and species richness. Ungrazed and low-intensity sheep grazing treatments produced the highest moth abundance and species richness. 4. Moths that feed exclusively on graminoids and moths that overwinter as larvae were disproportionately well represented in the ungrazed treatment. 5. A sub-set of species for which large declines have recently been documented in the UK were most abundant in the ungrazed treatment. However, they made up the largest proportion of the overall assemblage in the high-intensity grazing treatment. 6. Increased grazing inversely affects moth abundance and species richness. However, effects are not even across all moth species. An absence of grazing is likely to negatively affect the abundance of some moths, especially those that overwinter in the egg stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hemlock woolly adelgid invasion is expected to cause widespread mortality of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) throughout much of New England. Light levels in streams with hemlock riparian zones are anticipated to increase as hemlock trees are replaced by deciduous trees. We sought to: (1) quantify differences in light reaching streams with hemlock and deciduous riparian zones, (2) determine if increases in light result in higher periphyton biomass, and (3) explore the role of macroinvertebrate grazing on periphyton biomass as light increases in an attempt to help predict stream ecosystem responses to hemlock mortality. Light measurements were taken along 100-800 m stream reaches with riparian zones of healthy hemlock and deciduous trees in Massachusetts and Connecticut. In addition, a 2 × 2 factorial experimental design with five replicates was executed on a deciduous reach of Egypt Brook in central Massachusetts, in which light (high light vs. low light) and grazing (high grazing vs. low grazing) were manipulated. Light measurements were significantly higher for streams with deciduous riparian zones than hemlock riparian zones. Periphyton biomass was significantly reduced by controlled shading, but was not influenced by grazer exclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions: Has the species-rich vegetation of upland hay meadows been maintained under low intensity management imposed by an agri-environment scheme? Is the target plant community re-establishing where it has been modified previously by intensive agricultural practices? What combinations of management practices and soil properties are associated with changes towards or away from the target community? Location: The Pennines, northern England, UK. Methods: A survey of 116 hay meadows in 1987 was repeated in 2002 by recording plant species in permanent quadrats. Changes in community variables (species richness, Ellenberg values, upland hay meadow community coefficients) were analysed in species-rich, modified species-rich and degraded grassland types. Redundancy Analysis and Generalised Linear Models were used to show the relationship between management practices and soil properties and change in species composition and community variables. Results: Few sites contained the species-rich grassland type, and here forb richness declined. In the modified species-rich type, total and grass species richness increased but Ellenberg N-values also increased. Total and grass species richness increased in the degraded type and the community coefficient increased. Management was weakly related to change in species composition but showed clear relationships with the community variables. Re-establishment of the target species-rich community was more likely with late cutting, in the absence of cattle or prolonged spring grazing, and at lower soil nutrient status. Conclusion: The species-rich community was not maintained but some reversion occurred in degraded grassland. Inorganic fertiliser application and intensive spring grazing should be avoided and cutting delayed until late July. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum) is a major problem for livestock-based extensive agriculture, conservation, recreation, and game management globally. It is an invasive species often achieving dominance to the detriment of other species. Control is essential to maintain plant communities such as grassland and lowland heath or if extensive grazing by domestic stock, particularly sheep, is to be viable on upland margins. Bracken is managed primarily by herbicide application or cutting but other techniques including rolling, burning, and grazing are also utilized. Here we evaluate the evidence regarding the effectiveness of asulam for the control of bracken. Thirteen studies provided data for meta-analyses which demonstrate that application of the herbicide asulam reduces bracken abundance. Subgroup analyses indicate that the number of treatments had an important impact, with multiple follow-up treatments more effective than one or two treatments. Management practices should reflect the requirement for repeated follow-up. There is insufficient available experimental evidence for quantitative analysis of the effectiveness of other management interventions, although this results from lack of reporting in papers where cutting and comparisons of cutting and asulam application are concerned. Systematic searching and meta-analytical synthesis have effectively demonstrated the limits of current knowledge, based on recorded empirical evidence, and increasing the call for more rigorous monitoring of bracken control techniques. Lack of experimental evidence on the effectiveness of management such as rolling or grazing with hardy cattle breeds contrasts with the widespread acceptance of their use through dissemination of experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Rotational burning of heather to improve grazing and grouse breeding is a common management practice for upland catchments in the UK. However, the effects of such practices on hydrology and water quality are not well understood because the timescale of burning rotation is typically between 7 and 20 years thus requiring long-term experiments in order to resolve the effects. Furthermore, land management, such as changes in burning or grazing practices, has been proposed as a possible strategy for the remediation of the widespread increases in dissolved organic carbon (DOC) observed across the northern hemisphere. This study is based on a long-term experiment on the effect of different rotational burning cycles and grazing intensities on upland vegetation and aims to understand the effects of these management strategies on hydrology and water quality. The main outcomes are: [(i)] The depth to water table in the soil showed significant differences between different burning rotations and grazing intensities. Depth to water table was greatest on plots where burning did not occur or for longer burning cycles where livestock had been excluded. [(ii)] The pH and conductivity of sampled soil water showed no significant difference between grazing treatments, with the presence of burning being the most important factor (frequency of the burning cycle was not important). [(iii)] The DOC content showed no significant difference between grazing treatments but showed a significant decrease with the presence of burning, though no direct relationship with the depth to water table could be found. [(iv)] Burn management explains only a small proportion of the variance in the composition of the DOC, rather the variation is dominated by the differences between days of sampling and seasonal variation. Therefore, this study suggests that land management controls hydrology and water quality through controlling the development of vegetation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Finding an optimal balance between livestock production and grazing impact on animal diversity is important for the development of sustainable grazing systems. This paper tests the hypothesis that extensification of grazing management enhances animal diversity. Similar treatments were applied over a period of three years to sites in the UK, France, Germany and Italy. There were three treatments at each site: moderate grazing intensity with a commercial breed (MC), lenient grazing intensity with a commercial breed (LC) and lenient grazing intensity with a traditional breed (LT). Animal diversity was studied at the species level for birds, hares, butterflies and grasshoppers, and at higher taxonomic level for ground-dwelling arthropods. Bird and hare numbers were low and showed no overall treatment effects. Species richness and abundance of butterflies and grasshoppers were higher for treatment LC than for treatment MC, both for species preferring short open grasslands and those preferring tall grasslands. There was no difference in the impact of commercial or traditional breeds. Most ground-dwelling arthropod groups did not show consistent treatment effects but some taxa showed site-specific responses, generally indicating a greater abundance at lenient grazing intensity. Overall, the study showed that lenient grazing intensity enhanced animal diversity on grasslands at a small scale within 3 years. By comparison, the effect of livestock breed differences was negligible. Follow-up research is needed to elucidate the processes leading to increased biodiversity in patch mosaics and to establish the generality of these findings at larger spatial scales and longer time scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposed riverine sediments (ERS) are habitat for a large number of rare and threatened specialist species of invertebrates and are of considerable conservation importance. Livestock trampling is believed to be one of the most widespread causes of damage to ERS habitats in the UK, and as such, its effects were the focus of this investigation. Beetle density was measured at two points within 25 distinct patches of habitat along ∼47 km of the Afon Tywi special site of scientific interest in South Wales, which is known to support an extremely good quality ERS beetle fauna in a UK context. Partial canonical correspondence analyses were used to explore the relationship between beetle assemblage and a range of environmental variables. The percentage of fine (<8 mm) sediments, median sediment size, distance downstream, cattle stocking levels, and counts of sheep faeces were found to best relate to beetle abundance and assemblage structure. Species richness was positively associated with stocking levels, probably because of the addition of species associated with resultant elevated levels of silt and organic matter. The ERS quality score, which is a measure of conservation value based on the rarity of specialist ERS beetles, was negatively associated with measures of trampling damage. It was therefore concluded that livestock trampling reduces the conservation value of beetle communities on high quality ERS and management should restrict trampling in sites of high conservation importance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Declining populations of UK grassland flora and fauna have been attributed to intensification of agricultural management practices, including changes in cutting, fertilizer, grazing and drainage regimes. We aimed to develop field margin management practices that could reverse declines in intensively managed grassland biodiversity that would have application in the UK and Europe. Here we focus on one aspect of grassland biodiversity, the beetles. 2. In four intensively managed livestock farms in south-west England, 10-m wide field margins in existing grasslands were managed to create seven treatments of increasing sward architectural complexity. This was achieved through combinations of inorganic (NPK) fertilizer, cattle grazing, and timing and height of cutting. To examine the potential influence of complexity on faunal diversity, beetles were identified to species level from suction samples taken between 2003 and 2005, and their assemblage structure was related to margin management, floral assemblages and sward architecture. 3. Beetle abundance, and species richness and evenness were influenced by margin management treatment and its interaction with year. Correlations with sward architecture and the percentage cover of dominant forbs and grasses were also found. Functional groups of the beetles showed different responses to the management treatments. In particular, higher proportional abundances of seed/flower-feeding guilds were found in treatments not receiving NPK fertilizer. 4. The assemblage structure was shown to respond to margin management treatments, sward architecture and the percentage cover of dominant forbs and grasses. The most extensively managed treatments were characterized by distinct successional trajectories from the control treatment. 5. Synthesis and applications. This study provides management options suitable for use within agri-environment schemes intended to improve faunal diversity associated with intensively managed lowland grasslands. Field margins receiving either no management or a single July silage cut were shown to support greater abundances and species richness of beetles, although subtler modifications of conventional management may also be beneficial, for example the absence of NPK fertilizer while maintaining grazing and silage cutting systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix in Britain have declined through the 20th century, and most birds are now in Scotland. Many causes for this decline have been suggested, notably agricultural intensification, increased grazing levels and moorland afforestation. We examine habitat correlates of Black Grouse distribution and population change from a 700-km2 area in the core of the Scottish range, where the numbers of lekking male Black Grouse declined by an estimated 70% to 270 between 1990 and 2002. Habitat data were derived from satellite imagery, in combination with map and field-collected data. Lek occurrence, lek size and changes in lek size were all correlated with forest structure, either positively with the amount of pre-thicket forest cover, or negatively with closed canopy cover. Additional effects of the cover of grass moor and dry heath suggest that Black Grouse are most likely to occur where moorland comprises Heather Calluna vulgaris and grass mosaics. Analysis of the change in Black Grouse abundance within 1.5 km of discrete forest blocks suggests that forest maturation, which has been the dominant habitat change during the course of the study, alone accounts for 58–78% of the decline. Given the close association of Black Grouse and the occurrence of woodland (and particularly conifer plantation) throughout much of their British range, these findings can be used to inform the design of management schemes for the recovery of Black Grouse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upland hay meadows conforming to MG3 in the National Vegetation Classification of the UK are a rare habitat in Britain and are largely confined to upland valleys in northern England. Agricultural intensification, particularly ploughing and reseeding and a shift from hay-making to silage production over the last 50 years, has resulted in large losses of species-rich upland hay meadows. Remaining species-rich meadows have been the focus of much nature conservation effort resulting in many of the species-rich sites being protected by statutory designations or through voluntary agri-environment scheme agreements. Research and monitoring has tended to confirm that species richness is maximized by management involving spring and autumn grazing, a mid-July hay cut, no inorganic fertilizer and possibly low levels of farmyard manure. Deviations from this regime result in a loss of species richness. Restoration of semi-improved grassland to swards resembling species-rich MG3 also requires a similar regime but is also dependent on the introduction of seed of appropriate species. The role of Rhinanthus minor as a tool for manipulating meadow biodiversity during restoration management is discussed. Suggestions for future research are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Grazing by large herbivores is a major determinant of vegetation dynamics in many semi-natural ecosystems, including the replacement of heather moorland by rough grassland in the British uplands. Herbivore foraging is influenced by vegetation patterns and, in turn, their grazing drives vegetation dynamics. Although vegetation impacts are local, spatially heterogeneous local impacts can have different consequences as would the same impacts distributed uniformly. We constructed a simulation model of the spatial effects of grazing by sheep on the vegetation dynamics of heather moorland, a vegetation community of international conservation importance in the UK. The model comprised three sub-models to predict (1) annual average heather utilisation, (2) spatial variation in heather utilisation (higher near the edge of grass patches) and (3) competition between heather and grass. Here we compare the predicted heather utilisation and vegetation dynamics of the spatial model, relative to those of a non-spatial model. The spatial model resulted in a reduced loss of heather cover for a given sheep stocking rate. The model demonstrates how spatial interactions between large herbivores and their forage drive vegetation dynamics, leading to changes in community structure and composition. Indeed, omitting spatial effects in grazing models may lead to inaccurate predictions. We have shown that ecosystem modelling, based around an iterative dialogue between developers and experienced researchers, has the potential to make a substantial contribution towards the conservation and management of vulnerable landscapes. Combining modelling with experimental studies will facilitate progress towards understanding long-term vegetation/herbivore dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Two papers, ) and ), published in Journal of Applied Ecology are discussed. These papers suggest that saltmarsh erosion is linked to bioturbation, and concentrate on the role of the ragworm Nereis diversicolor. The authors also suggest that new saltmarsh will not develop in realignment sites because bioturbation will prevent the establishment of saltmarsh plants. We dispute their analysis and offer evidence that inferences derived from their experimental work are erroneous. 2. Experience from the current range of managed realignment sites in the UK shows that saltmarsh communities are developing, and include the lower marsh Salicornia communities that they suggest are vulnerable to the effects of bioturbation and grazing by N. diversicolor. 3. Further evidence of the benefits of managed realignment, even in situations where realignment sites lie below existing seaward mudflat levels, is provided by the saltmarshes that developed on sites that were not re-enclosed after the 1953 flood in eastern England. 4. We highlight the importance of maintaining positive sediment budgets in order that saltmarshes may continue to adjust to sea level rise and to ensure that sufficient sediment exists to allow realignment sites to warp up to levels at which pioneer saltmarsh may develop. 5. We also draw attention to a range of initiatives that seek to maintain sediment levels within estuaries in south-east England, and highlight the broader conceptual approach that looks upon dredged sediment as an important resource and not a waste material. None of these is designed to change permanently the estuarine tidal prism, as suggested by ). 6. Synthesis and applications. We present evidence to show that coastal realignment is effective in managing and reversing saltmarsh erosion. We dispute the conclusions presented in the recent papers by ) and ). We suggest that infauna play an essential role in saltmarsh ecology and that N. diversicolor does not play a destructive role in saltmarsh establishment. In the broader context of coastal management, the long-term benefits of managed realignment in sea defence and in delivering nature conservation benefit are quite clear. Sustainable sediment management will play a key role in sustaining saltmarsh habitats in the future. Journal of Applied Ecology (2004) 41, 787–791 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The objective of the study was to describe the annual and seasonal production of live biomass of six plant species or communities of the uplands of the UK –Calluna vulgaris , Vaccinium myrtillus , Nardus stricta , Molinia caerulea , Eriophorum vaginatum and Agrostis–Festuca grassland. The species or communities are important for the management of the uplands to meet both biodiversity and agriculture objectives. The annual and seasonal production of live biomass was determined for sites within six regions of England and Wales in 1995, 1996 and 1997. The six regions were North-east England, North-west England, North Pennines, South Pennines, South-west England and Wales. In each region, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology's Land Classification Scheme was used to select three or four 2 km × 2 km squares that contained a mosaic of C. vulgaris and upland grassland plant species. Uniform plots of 1 ha were selected from each 2 km × 2 km square, within which three measurements were made on each sampling occasion. Biomass of each species or community was measured within 1·0 × 0·5-m quadrats using the same standard procedures. Measurements of annual production of current season's shoots of the pioneer, building, mature and degenerate phases of C. vulgaris and of V. myrtillus were made in October, and of the annual production of live biomass of N. stricta , M. caerulea and E. vaginatum in August. A simulated grazing regime was imposed for the Agrostis–Festuca grassland with cuts being made to a height of 4 cm at 8-week intervals. The annual production of live biomass produced was estimated as the sum of four harvests taken during the growing season. Seasonal measurements of the amount of live biomass of all the species were also made in April, June, August and October. For C. vulgaris , there were significant (P = 0·05) differences between the pioneer, building, mature and degenerate phases in the annual... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The population of mute swans Cygnus olor (Gmelin) in the UK has increased since 1986 to >25 000 birds, leading to increased complaints of damage to winter crops, and the need for cost-effective management measures. Using a randomized block design in a split-field experiment, the effectiveness of three licensed grazing deterrents was evaluated for mute swans feeding on oil-seed rape: (1) a ziram-based chemical repellent (AAprotect[sup TM] at 10 kg ha[sup -1]), (2) white flags (25 flags ha[sup -1]), and (3) hazard warning tape (1000 m ha[sup -1]) with twine (400 m ha[sup -1]). Deterrents and control (no treatment) were assigned to one of four plots (approximately 1 ha) in each of four fields. From 4 December 1998 to 26 March 1999, grazing intensity was estimated by counting mute swan droppings on plots at approximately 2-week intervals. Over the entire study (10 - 15 weeks depending on field), total numbers of droppings did not differ significantly between treatments. Over the initial 8 weeks, however, droppings were significantly lower on tape/twine. Tape/twine may therefore potentially be cost-effective in reducing mute swan grazing, and further work is recommended to refine the technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]