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Fifty years have passed since the Journal of Agricultural Economics published an article by Ruth Gasson on the goals and values of farmers in England. Gasson's research demonstrated the complexity of motives and, in particular, the importance farmers attached to the activities of farming (their intrinsic orientation), even among the operators of larger farms. Gasson's article has been widely cited as seminal by subsequent researchers on farmer behaviour. Governments have acknowledged the importance of understanding the motives of farm decision‐makers when explaining their responses to economic and policy signals and designing schemes to shape farmers' behaviour. Brexit and the creation of national agricultural policies for each constituent UK country have highlighted the need for this better understanding, though precisely how this information can be used remains difficult. The continued dominance of an intrinsic orientation is particularly important for policies encouraging retirement and for the agri‐environment. Gasson's legacy is also important in the quantification of goals and values to segment, and hence model, the heterogeneity of likely farmer responses to market and policy signals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Throughout British membership of the European Union (EU), agricultural policy was largely determined by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). This was viewed by the UK as a dysfunctional policy and while periodic reforms meant that the EU moved slowly in the direction advocated by the UK, many of the main policy elements remained in place. The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have always enjoyed a measure of policy freedom in agriculture and have diverged from England in some areas. This article explores the extent of de-Europeanisation in the agricultural sectors in the UK and the patterns of divergence between them, focusing primarily on the development of policies for agricultural support that will replace those in place under the CAP. Overall, there has been substantial divergence in policy, but also areas of continuity, which means that processes of de-Europeanisation in the UK agricultural sectors has been uneven. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing the impact of Brexit involves disentangling the extensive and complex web of rules and relations that developed over decades of EU membership and integration, as well as analysing the effects on businesses, citizens, and the state. For scholars, the exercise is all the more challenging because Brexit has been a 'moving target'. Nevertheless, what does emerge is the transformational reach of Brexit for the UK, with implications for its polity, politics, and policies. The UK seems at a crossroads. Relations with the devolved administrations will need to be rethought even as the Westminster model appears reinforced. The UK is still grappling with balancing newfound regulatory autonomy and managing divergence from the EU, and its role in the world is still in flux. For the EU, Brexit did not transform into a full blown existential (disintegrative) crisis. It still faces potential existential crises, but these are not because of Brexit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern agriculture has drastically changed global landscapes and introduced pressures on wildlife populations. Policy and management of agricultural systems has changed over the last 30 years, a period characterized not only by intensive agricultural practices but also by an increasing push towards sustainability. It is crucial that we understand the long-term consequences of agriculture on beneficial invertebrates and assess if policy and management approaches recently introduced are supporting their recovery. In this study, we use large citizen science datasets to derive trends in invertebrate occupancy in Great Britain between 1990 and 2019. We compare these trends between regions of no- (0%), low- (greater than 0–50%) and high-cropland (greater than 50%) cover, which includes arable and horticultural crops. Although we detect general declines, invertebrate groups are declining most strongly in high-cropland cover regions. This suggests that even in the light of improved policy and management over the last 30 years, the way we are managing cropland is failing to conserve and restore invertebrate communities. New policy-based drivers and incentives are required to support the resilience and sustainability of agricultural ecosystems. Post-Brexit changes in UK agricultural policy and reforms under the Environment Act offer opportunities to improve agricultural landscapes for the benefit of biodiversity and society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the agri-food trade strategy of the United Kingdom (UK) after its exit as member of the European Union (Brexit). Also cited are the UK's plan to promote rules-based order for international trade, free markets, globalisation, and free trade, and the UK's independent free trade agreements with New Zealand and Australia.

Brexit, the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, has offered the UK government a unique opportunity to fundamentally reform agricultural policy. In England, the new policy—called Environmental Land Management—will reward farmers for activities that produce environmental public goods, such as clean air and water and a thriving wildlife, and prevent environmental hazards. It could lead to the biggest changes in land management since the end of World War II. This photo essay and the process of making it contributes to a better understanding of how farmers feel about the changes underway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family farms dominate less favoured areas (LFAs) within Europe, and family life‐cycle conditions, such as succession and retirement, affects how these farms adapt to changing circumstances. Past studies of on‐farm technical efficiency have not directly addressed these conditions, but they may explain why some farms are more efficient than others, especially as the farm family model dominates most farming systems. Motivated by the UK's withdrawal from the EU and the debate around establishing replacement support policies, we apply a multi‐step model to measure both transient and persistent inefficiencies using a panel of LFA cattle and sheep farms in Scotland over the period 2003–2020. We find a greater prevalence of persistent compared to transient inefficiency, which suggests that structural problems still exist. Farms with planned succession are found to have higher persistent efficiencies, whereas farmers nearing retirement have lower levels. Other factors, such as dependence on subsidy, off‐farm activity and classification as severely disadvantaged tend to compound these lower efficiencies. We argue that life‐cycle conditions should not be ignored in studies of farm technical efficiency. Within the scope of framing a new agricultural policy for UK administrations, these results inform the debate on support for LFAs, as well as the promotion of support towards generational renewal to ease transition across farm family life‐cycle events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

UK farming is at a crossroads. Its continued dependency on decoupled direct payments, shortage of investment finance, difficulties in changing cost structure and the reduced scope to differentiate and diversity sources of farm revenue, exacerbated by the unprecedented increases in the price of key inputs, means farmers face stark choices with fewer remaining effective management options. This study reviews two previous crossroads moments in UK agriculture and considers how the current crossroads moment is different from those. It then provides an estimate of the impacts of the current challenges on the size of the future farming population, based on the methodology used by McInerney. The inter-farm distribution of assets, debts and earnings, differences in farm specialisation, availability of finance and farm-succession arrangements mean it is not easy to identify which individual farms are most likely to fail. Nevertheless, upland grazing, lowland grazing and mixed farm-types seem to be the most vulnerable. Assuming low but realistic returns to fixed and working capital and income/farm, the future farming population is estimated to be 138,000: a 23% reduction from the number of 2019 farming population. The population falls to 15,000 if all subsidies paid in 2021 are removed from the calculation. The actual fall will be smaller than this because farmers will develop new revenue streams and farming systems. But a reduction even approaching 23% is likely to result in more generous assistance being made available, and perhaps even a reversal of some key elements of the new policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This conceptual paper draws on Max Weber's Iron Cage metaphor to explore its value in understanding how farmers are responding to the institutional contexts that influence and constrain entrepreneurial activities. We create Ideal Types of farmers, farm businesses and farm business strategies to provide a nuanced understanding into the heterogeneous ways Upland farmers are navigating and responding to ever-shifting Constrained Institutional Contexts (CIC's). We examine Weber's original cage metaphor, and draw on its limitations by framing it alternatively to provide a unique lens to examine the UK farming context. We add clarity into how farmers are responding to the challenges arising from the contexts within which they operate, providing a strong theoretical underpinning that can be used by other scholars to examine constrained rural entrepreneurship. • Ideal type of Farmers. • Weberian Analysis. • Uncertainty in the UK farming sector. • UK Agricultural policy will have a dramatic effect on the UK farm sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the impacts of the reduction in the network of private kill abattoirs on the delivery of public goods supported under the redesigned UK agriculture policy. An online survey was used to gather information about farmers selection and use of abattoirs, and a telephone survey of abattoir owners and managers complemented the farmer survey. Of the 300 respondents, 185 used abattoirs for private kill retail (PKR) services. 121 of these PKR farmers (65.4%) reported their PKR business as "essential" "or "very important" to the viability of their farm business. Seventy-five (41%) had no alternative abattoir, 21 of these 75 would have to close their PKR business if the abattoir they currently used closed, 22.7% would reduce their grassland area, releasing greenhouse gases, and 30% would stop farming native breeds, reducing the gene pool and conservation grazing environmental management options. 110 PKR farmers did have a viable alternative abattoir, but using it would increase livestock journeys, increasing greenhouse gas emissions and making it more likely farmers would need to use commercial rather than farm transport, further jeopardising animal welfare and biosecurity. Therefore, the continuing closure of private kill services threatens core government policy objectives. However, private kill services could be supported by government grant schemes, resolving confusion regarding food labelling, and reducing small abattoir costs by introducing "de minimis" derogation – as currently used on some Channel Island and mainland Europe abattoirs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural intensification has been implicated in global biodiversity declines. In the European Union, agri‐environmental schemes are designed to address this. For pollinating insects, funding has been provided to sow wildflower mixes. However, previous research indicates that a suite of agricultural weeds are also of great importance to pollinators.Here, we compare the biodiversity associated with the species which are considered harmful to agricultural production and legally deemed as 'injurious' by the United Kingdom 1959 Weeds Act (common ragwort Jacobaea vulgaris, creeping thistle Cirsium arvense, spear thistle C. vulgare, curled dock Rumex crispus and broadleaved dock R. obtusifolius), with plant species recommended for pollinator‐targeted agri‐environmental options.In our field study, the abundance and diversity of pollinators visiting the weed species averaged twice that of the recommended plants and included the main insect orders (Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera). This relationship was also seen in a meta‐analysis of literature data, which indicates that fourfold more flower‐visitor species and fivefold more conservation‐listed species are associated with the weeds. Additionally, the literature shows that twice the number of herbivorous insect species are associated with these plants.We suggest that several factors are responsible for this pattern. Injurious weed species are widely distributed, their flower morphology allows access to a wide variety of pollinator species, and they produce, on average, four times more nectar sugar than the recommended plant species.Freedom of information requests to public bodies such as local councils, Natural England and Highways England indicate that c. £10 million per year is spent controlling injurious weeds. Meanwhile, the cost of the four pollinator‐targeted agri‐environmental options in the United Kingdom exceeds £40 m annually.Synthesis and applications. Our results clearly show that weeds have an underappreciated value to biodiversity. Unfortunately, current UK agricultural policy encourages neither land sparing for nor land sharing with weeds. The UK government is, however, currently committed to overhauling agricultural payments to encourage more wildlife‐ and climate‐friendly practices. Thus, the challenge of reconciling the conflicts between agricultural production and these native and biodiverse species should be a renewed priority to land managers, researchers and policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Examines the possibilities and challenges of nurturing UK agri-food justice. • Land justice is crucial to engender food system transformation. • 'Public goods' approach to agri-food policy acts as a depoliticising consensus frame. • The land-food nexus must be placed more prominently on the research agenda. • Argues for participative, inclusive agri-food praxis based on socioecological justice. This paper examines the possibilities and challenges of nurturing agri-food justice by using land as a foundational node in the context of the UK leaving the European Union – what has been termed 'Brexit'. Drawing upon the interconnected literatures of land justice and food justice, which have received sparse coverage in the UK, we develop an agri-food (in)justice lens to reveal the diverse contestations and struggles to transform the physical and political agri-food Brexit landscape in more socioecological just ways. Our research highlights the tensions and difficulties in addressing the complex social and environmental injustices bound up with UK agri-food relations, given the unequal power dynamics that permeate food and farming politics and policy. In particular, the research reveals the continued 'hidden' politics of historically-embedded land (in)justice. We therefore argue for greater focus on the multiscalar relationships between land and the intersecting contestations of agri-food labour, capital and knowledge. We end the paper by discussing the limitations of the nascent 'public goods' approach to agricultural policy under a purported 'Green Brexit' and arguing for participative and inclusive agri-food praxis based on land and food justice to cultivate more socioecologically just futures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Soil loss by water erosion is projected to increase by 13–22.5 % in EU and UK by 2050. • The main driver for the projected increase of water erosion is rainfall erosivity. • 19 Global Climate Models for 3 RCPs(2.6,4.5,8.5) estimate an erosivity +15.7–25.5 %. • Land use dynamics have a small positive effect (c.a. 3%) in erosion mitigation. • Effective future erosion mitigation requires policy measures for soil conservation. Changes in future soil erosion rates are driven by climatic conditions, land use patterns, socio-economic development, farmers' choices, and importantly modified by agro-environmental policies. This study simulates the impact of expected climatic and land use change projections on future rates of soil erosion by water (sheet and rill processes) in 2050 within the agricultural areas of the European Union and the UK, compared to a current representative baseline (2016). We used the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) adjusted at continental scale with projections of future rainfall erosivity and land use change. Future rainfall erosivity is predicted using an average composite of 19 Global Climate Models (GCMs) from the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Projects (CMIP5) WorldClim dataset across three Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5). Concerning future land use change and crop dynamics, we used the projections provided by the Common Agricultural Policy Regional Impact Analysis (CAPRI) model. Depending on the RCP scenario, we estimate a +13 %-22.5 % increase in the mean soil erosion rate in the EU and UK, rising from an estimated 3.07 t ha−1 yr−1 (2016) to between 3.46 t ha−1 yr−1 (RCP2.6 scenario) and 3.76 t ha−1 yr−1 (RCP8.5 scenario). Here, we disentangle the impact of land use change and climate change in relation to future soil losses. Projected land use change in the EU and UK indicates an overall increase of pasture coverage in place of croplands. This land use change is estimated to reduce soil erosion rates (-3%). In contrast, the increases in future rainfall erosivity (+15.7 %–25.5 %) will force important increases of soil erosion requiring further targeted intervention measures. Given that agro-environmental policies will be the most effective mechanisms to offset this future increase in soil erosion rates, this study proposes soil conservation instruments foreseen in the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) to run policy scenarios. A targeted application of cover crops in soil erosion hotspots combined with limited soil disturbance measures can partially or completely mitigate the effect of climate change on soil losses. Effective mitigation of future soil losses requires policy measures for soil conservation on at least 50 % of agricultural land with erosion rates above 5 t ha−1 yr−1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agri-environmental policies in the UK stand on the threshold of significant change, with wide acceptance that radical changes are needed to ensure a better delivery of public goods in future. The UK's departure from the EU presents an opportunity to fully realise the "Public Money for Public Goods" principle in the new suite of Environmental Land Management schemes. A likely priority will be the delivery of conservation goals at a landscape scale, which will require the recruitment of a broader range of actors and institutions than at present, including an emerging group of what we call in this paper 'new land managers'. Understanding the changing dynamics of rural land occupancy, and the characteristics and motivations of these new land managers, will be essential in the future for the effective delivery of these public schemes. Data on land market trends is nevertheless patchy and poorly researched. For this paper, we drew on a survey of land agents in England, all of whom were members of the Central Association for Agricultural Valuers (CAAV), in order to gather information and reflections on contemporary land markets. A key finding is that agricultural policy reform and retrenchment is seen by many of these experts as a significant driver of future change. Taken together with other interacting factors such as the overall tax burden on businesses and the economic and personal situation of farmers and their succession status, many of our respondents predicted significant structural change, with more land coming on to the market for resale. At the same time, increasing demand for land from "lifestyle/non-farming landholders" and the growing presence of people entering the market interested in enroling land for carbon sequestration and natural capital improvements, will mean a shift in the types of individuals and organisations holding land. Those holding and managing land in coming years are likely to comprise an ever more diverse and fragmented community of land owners and occupiers The task for policymakers then, is to deliver a suite of interventions specifically tailored to the various types of landholders in order to engage them effectively into public goods delivery under ELMs. • Traditional focus of UK agri-environmental policies is on main occupation farmers. • Emphasis on landscape scale delivery requires broader set of public good providers. • Knowledge gaps in rural land occupancy mean that successful recruitment is limited. • Findings reported here indicate a continued diversification of landholder types. • A suite of interventions tailored to the broadening landholders types will be key. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the UK leaves the European Union, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which for decades has dictated how and when farming support is delivered, will be replaced with a new UK agricultural policy which will see UK farmers, especially upland livestock farmers, facing a more challenging economic environment and a significant change to the way in which farming support is delivered. This study used a series of interviews with UK farmers across differing locations and categories to ascertain how levels of social capital may hinder or enhance a farmer's willingness to embrace future agricultural policy. We found that more conventional farmers who have never participated in agri-environment schemes and those currently in government-run schemes display high levels of bonding capital and low levels of bridging and linking capital which may hinder their ability to adapt to change. In contrast, farmers who embrace a pubic goods approach to land management displayed high bridging and linking capital and are more likely to work with government officials to adapt to policy change. Communities are more likely to become sustainable if they have access to government support and advice, and if relationships with other community members and stakeholders with an interest in rural communities, the natural environment and land management are encouraged and maintained. • Conventional farmers access high levels of bonding social capital. • High Nature Value Farmers access high levels of bridging and linking social capital. • As farmers' community roles diminish, community co-operative action reduces. • The government must shift from controller and provider to catalyst and facilitator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK exited the EU on 31 January 2020, with a transition period agreed as part of the Withdrawal Agreement. During this transition period the UK and the EU will decide on their future trading relationship. No matter what form this relationship takes, there will be disturbances to agri‐food markets. This study analyses four different scenarios with increasing barriers to trade, ranging from a very close relationship similar to the European Economic Area to a distant relationship in which the UK and EU trade on Most Favoured Nation terms, using the EU focused global agricultural sector model CAPRI. In the UK, food prices will increase in all scenarios, making consumers in the UK the biggest losers. Only in a free trade agreement scenario does the UK show an unambiguous positive net welfare gain in just the agri‐food sector. In the case of the European Economic Area scenario, which assumes continued access to the single market, the net welfare impact would depend on the size of the UK's continued contribution to the EU. In the EU, declining food prices would benefit consumers but the sum of the loss in farmers' incomes and the UK's EU CAP contribution would be much greater than the consumer's gain. These impacts in agricultural markets under different future trade arrangements will also be influenced by the UK's agricultural policy changes in direct payments as well as by possible further UK trade liberalisation after the end of the transition period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: For years the United States Department of Agriculture's Pesticide Data Program and the United Kingdom's Food Standards Agency have published annual or quarterly data on pesticide residues in foods. Both programs report residues in conventionally grown, organic, and imported foods. The US program has tested about 288,000 food samples since 1992, primarily fruits and vegetables consumed by children. Since 1999 the UK has tested about 72,000 samples of a wider range of foods. These data are vital inputs in tracking trends in pesticide dietary risks.Methods: The Dietary Risk Index (DRI) system facilitates detailed analyses of US and UK pesticide residue data, trends, and chronic risk distributions. The DRI value for a pesticide is the dietary intake of that pesticide from a single serving of food divided by the pesticide's acceptable daily intake as set by the US Environmental Protection Agency. It can be calculated based on average annual residue concentrations, and on residue levels in individual samples of food. DRI values can be aggregated over multiple pesticides in single foods, and over individual pesticides in multiple foods.Results: The DRI system provides insights into the levels, trends, and distribution of pesticide dietary risk across most widely consumed foods. By drawing on both US Pesticide Data Program and UK-Food Standards Agency residue data, the DRI is capable of assessing pesticide risks in a significant portion of the global food supply. Substantial reductions in pesticide dietary risks occurred in the early 2000s, primarily from replacement of organophosphate insecticides with seemingly lower-risk neonicotinoids. However, there remain several areas of concern and opportunities to reduce risks. Both herbicide and fungicide dietary risks are rising. Organically grown produce poses risks far lower than corresponding, conventionally grown produce. Risk differences are inconsistent between domestic and imported foods.Conclusions: The surest ways to markedly reduce pesticide dietary risks are to shift relatively high-risk fruits and vegetables to organic production. For other foods, reducing reliance on pesticides overall, and especially high-risk pesticides, will incrementally lower risks. The DRI system can help focus such efforts and track progress in reducing pesticide dietary risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The agricultural sector in the UK is facing unprecedented challenges as a result of changes in the macroeconomic environment and the future of the livestock sub-sector is particularly uncertain. Farmer's businesses and livelihoods are at risk with the planned removal of subsidy payments as a consequence of emerging agricultural policy change as a result of Brexit. Farmers are forced to seek adaptive strategies to survive because of changing socio-political circumstances. This study explores the potential of an analytical tool, Discrete Event Simulation (DES) applied within the agricultural sub-sector of livestock management. It utilises a multi methodological approach using both interviews with farmers and a simulation of a real case; Colclough livestock farm, located in Yorkshire, England. The findings show that DES can be used by livestock farmers, helping to simulate potential growth strategies and observe the impact in relation to existing farm processes. Barriers to the sector wide adoption of new farm technologies are presented. This research captures the current views of farmers regarding technology adoption, showing empirically that technologies and software exist which can improve economic performance of farming enterprises, however, contingent factors, such as age, attitudes, skillsets and broadband connectivity, limits successful adoption. • Discrete Event Simulation in farming contexts are neglected in research. • Uncertainty in the UK farming sector. • UK Agricultural policy will have a dramatic effect on the UK farm sector. • Successful farm entrepreneurs utilise complementary technology skill sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Al Malweah for Archaeological & Historical Studies is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The UK Brexit vote triggered a new wave of policy developments for a future outside the EU. In this context, we analyse the business performance of English hill and upland farms, characterised by marginal economic conditions but also high nature value (HNV). The analysis aims to help identify farm‐level management and policy options for greater economic, environmental and social sustainability. Business performance is measured as technical efficiency and the occurrence and persistence of abnormal profits, estimated through stochastic frontier analysis and static and dynamic panel‐data methods. The results help indicate rationales for recent trends including farm enlargement, farm family diversification, and agri‐environment scheme entry. The single farm payment is found to be negatively associated with farm technical efficiency while agri‐environmental subsidies were positively associated to short‐term farm profitability. Farm adaptation and resilience during a period of likely turbulence in external circumstances is discussed in light of these findings, as well as potential parallels with marginal HNV areas across Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We suggest a novel approach for assessing ongoing regime destabilisation processes. • Socio-Technical Configuration Analysis (STCA) is used to depict destabilisation. • Reduced institutionalisation of field logics indicates regime destabilisation. • Regime institutionalisation in UK agricultural policy declines over Brexit period. • Despite window of opportunity for transition, no new regime is established. In sustainability transitions research, the deliberate destabilisation of socio-technical regimes is increasingly recognised as a central intervention point. Absent, however, are granular approaches for assessing whether regime destabilisation actually occurs in processes of systemic change. We propose to assess regime destabilisation through shifts in the institutionalisation of field logics. Methodologically, we employ Socio-Technical Configuration Analysis to map changes over time in the composition and alignment of institutional and technological concepts embedded in sectoral policy. Empirically, we assess the extent to which post-Brexit agricultural policy reform in the United Kingdom marks the destabilisation of an unsustainable regime. Assessing legislative debate transcripts, we find that the previously dominant regime is only partly destabilised, as pre-existing development trajectories along established configurations of field logics, policy goals and instruments remain. These findings support the validity of our conceptual approach. Moreover, they nuance expectations about large-scale policy change as windows of opportunity for regime shifts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Suppose we were in 2028: what would the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) look like then? Would it be significantly different from the policy we know today? How, and why? And to what extent would Brexit have catalyzed these changes? The CAP is one of the founding policies of the EU and a strategic lever to address critical 21st century challenges such as climate change and the rising demand for food at the global level. It also has an important role in Europe to address the growing urban-rural divide and its potentially destabilizing impact on European politics. In this article, we examine the impact of Brexit from a political-economic perspective emphasizing the multi-level context within which the CAP is embedded. As an EU member state, the UK found a way to partly accommodate the CAP to its needs even though this policy was a source of intense UK dissatisfaction with the EU. Post-Brexit, the budgetary and market implications of the UK's departure may favour positions that support a return to amore traditional policy of farm income support. On the other hand, more radical farm policies in England and Wales could partly offset these effects by setting the agenda for continued CAP reform, if they are seen to be successful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first agriculture research centre was established by agriculture scientist J.V.Bosingault at Ellses in 1834. Indian Green Revolution is associated with the use of HYVS (High Yielding Variety Seeds), chemical fertilizers and new techniques which led to a sharp rise in agriculture production during the middle of 1960. Expansion of area and rapid growth in productivity of wheat and rice, made possible by widespread adoption of improved varieties, expansion of agricultural research, demonstration and education, and investment in irrigation, supported by establishment of a national infrastructure to produce and supply inputs and to warehouse, distribute and market outputs. 35 per cent of India's population below the poverty line lives in rural areas, and is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture. The fundamental achievement of inexperienced revolution was once that there was a vast enlarges in agricultural production. Agriculture contributes more than 22 per cent of GDP (2007 estimates), although the share has progressively come down from 57 per cent in 1950-51. In developed countries like the UK and USA, the share of agriculture in GDP is only around two per cent. The new agricultural policy has made the farmers market oriented. The farmers are largely dependent on the market for the grant of inputs and for the demand for their products. At the same time, the demand for agricultural credit has also expanded as the new technology has accelerated the money requirements of the farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agri-environment schemes (AES), introduced by the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), aim to compensate land owners for implementing environmentally-friendly practices. Whilst literature has examined their effectiveness and how farmer characteristics govern AES adoption, there is a lack of knowledge about the spatial drivers of AES, particularly structural, biophysical and landscape factors in the UK. Using the Humber region as a case study, this paper explores how the uptake of Countryside Stewardship options has varied from 2016 to 2021. It also examines 2500 farms from the field- and farm-level data of 2019 to better understand what type of land British farmers are adopting AES on. Logistic regression analysis is used to identify the factors (including farm and landscape characteristics, designated sites and land quality) that best explain overall AES adoption, as well as specific scheme adoption, at the field- and farm-level. Our analysis reveals that 'buffer strips', 'hedgerow management', 'permanent grassland', and 'winter bird food' are the most commonly adopted schemes of 2019. AES are generally adopted on larger fields and farms that feature marginalised, unproductive and vulnerable land, except for 'buffer strips' which showed a larger tendency to appear on fields with more profitable, higher quality land. This study, therefore, supports the notion that AES are generally placed on lower quality land and that large proportions of agricultural land owners are not effectively targeted. With the expected loss of direct payments to farmers in the UK as a result of the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) post-Brexit re-evaluation of rural policy, these results call for the Sustainable Farming Incentive (SFI) to be made more accessible and inclusive to a broader diversity of farmers. • We investigated the spatial drivers of agri-environment scheme (AES) adoption. • AES were typically adopted on larger, marginalised and unproductive land. • Buffer strip AES are more commonly implemented on profitable, higher quality fields. • The uptake of hedgerow planting schemes has been rapidly increasing. • AES policies should be adapted to target the full spectrum of land owners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

UK farmers are facing significant uncertainty due to recent post-Brexit policy changes. Upland farmers in England are particularly at risk, due to their high dependence on European subsidy support payments. Farm entrepreneurship strategies may be a viable solution for these farmers to achieve economic sustainability while continuing to make valuable social and environmental contributions via multifunctional enterprises. However, many socio-economic constraints often prevent farmers from implementing these strategies. This paper builds upon existing research on 'constrained entrepreneurship in UK agriculture' by examining the Constrained Institutional Contexts that upland farmers operate within. Using a qualitative approach, the paper explores and theorizes how upland farmers are constrained by exogeneous forces which control access to and dependence on resources. The findings highlight the importance of a supportive rural environment for farm entrepreneurship; however, they also reveal that the success of such strategies is often beyond the control of individual farmers and policy support is often necessary to alleviate these constraints. • Constrained entrepreneurship in UK agricultural sector. • Post-Brexit legislative changes. • Weberian Analysis. • Uncertainty in the UK farming sector. •UK Agricultural policy will have a dramatic effect on the UK farm sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides an overview of the passage of the Elementary Education Act of 1870 in the first ministry of former Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone in Great Britain. It discusses the religious difficulty within the English education and to the Cowper-Temple clause's compromise in the act. It explores the intervention of Gladstone in the Education Bill at crucial moments, both in private communications and Commons speeches, in spite demands of the Irish Land Bill.

Brexit has the capacity to impact heavily on the agricultural sector across the United Kingdom in that it is a sector which has been both in receipt of substantial expenditure under the Common Agricultural Policy and subject to a pattern of close regulation at European Union level. This article will explore the legal implications for post-Brexit agricultural support, proceeding in three stages. First, there will be an outline of the current structure of the industry, with particular reference to its diversity in terms of physical landscape, operational scale and legal foundations. Secondly, there will be discussion of emerging policy within both central UK government and the devolved administrations. In this context, specific attention will be directed to the likely extent of funding and the proposed drive towards higher standards in environmental protection and animal welfare. And, in each case, account will also be taken of specific implications which flow from overarching World Trade Organization rules. Thirdly, there will be consideration of the potentially difficult issues which arise as a result of agriculture being a devolved matter, different policy imperatives already becoming evident across the constituent parts of the UK. For the present, the prospect is that a bespoke support regime will survive Brexit and, in this sense, agricultural ‘exceptionalism’ will continue. However, the more precise form of such a regime remains as yet work-in-progress and its realisation will present considerable challenges not only in political terms, but also by reason of the complex legal geometry in which World Trade Organization rules and the constitutional rights of the devolved administrations are weighty factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Defining and achieving sustainability in the context of complex, multi-scale, and constantly changing agricultural systems is a challenge for research and policy. In UK agriculture, the European Union and its Common Agricultural Policy has been a key source of funding for and approaches to sustainability in the agriculture and rural development sectors. The decision to leave the European Union represents a significant moment in UK agriculture and rural development policy, and both an opportunity and responsibility for the UK government to set out and commit towards achieving sustainability goals for the sector. In this study, a combination of ethnographic case study research, focusing on the case of upland farmers in the Yorkshire Dales, policy analysis and national agricultural sector data is referred to in describing experiences of agricultural policy reform over recent decades. From these experiences, lessons for the design and delivery of future agriculture and rural development are drawn out. It is argued that the integrated assessment of multiple sources of knowledge can provide a means to critically reflecting on evidence about sustainability in complex systems, better understanding trade-offs, and creating a more complete and inclusive knowledge base from which to define sustainable agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Critiques of the neoliberal governance of agricultural systems have led to a number of political responses which attempt to address the socio-environmental consequences of the dominant regime. In this paper two case study regions (South Australia and England) have been chosen to represent variations in agricultural policy and to highlight subsequent outcomes on the sustainability of agriculture. Interviewed governance stakeholders highlighted issues in regard to the agricultural governance of each area, from social and environmental consequences of minimal policy intervention in South Australia, to issues created by greater economic support in England. As such, the distinct variations in agricultural regimes will continue to demand scholarly attention, in order for the value of diversity within the sector to be more widely understood. The study concludes that it is likely agricultural support will continue to decline in both case study regions. Importantly, however, innovative policy mechanisms that aim to reduce local risks and value local agricultural priorities, without requiring significant financial support, might be the most promising way forward in regard to agricultural system sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper considers the impact of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) on the UK, and sets out three options for a new British Agricultural Policy after Brexit. These options are: carrying over the subsidy regime with an emphasis on food security and self sufficiency; maintaining the CAP architecture, but shifting more of the CAP subsidies away from payments for land ownership towards more spending on environmental schemes; and providing public money only for public goods. The third option is advocated, after a transitional path allows time for farmers to adapt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Securing the provision of environmental public goods from agriculture is central to addressing the critical challenge of ensuring global food security while halting ecosystem degradation. Agri-environment schemes (AES) are considered to have a key role to play in supporting the transition to more sustainable ways of producing food. Existing evidence suggests that farmers are generally willing to enrol in AES for the delivery of environmental features, but robust policy support requires further exploration of land managers' preferences and how these interplay with contract features to achieve higher environmental targets. We undertook a discrete choice experiment with land managers in post-Brexit UK, with what can be considered a 'benchmark' sample of younger AES-inclined land managers. This provides a window into the future of the UK farming landscape, but also, given the revision of the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy and other international discussions, it also provides insights into land managers' preferences for new contract features more widely. Our results suggest that (such type of) land managers are likely to be receptive to a transition to result-based, collaborative schemes supporting landscape-wide interventions in alignment with net zero agendas. These interventions could be done in exchange for levels of compensation similar to current levels. While this raises promise, our results also emphasize challenges, particularly to attract those less generally AES-prone land managers. Payments levels probably need to remain close to the current ones (not lower), farmers' awareness and support for net-zero agendas need to be reinforced and more interaction between land managers and policy makers will be needed. • We examined the outlines of new English agri-environmental schemes. • Past experience with schemes, age and farming full-time influence class membership. • The new schemes are expected to marginally increase English farmers' welfare. • Prospect of losing direct payments appears to influence participation in schemes. • Allowing farmers to set their own goals in schemes makes them more likely to enrol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role played by concepts and ideas in driving policy transformations has been much discussed in the political science literature. This paper presents a case study of ideas and the extent to which they drive policy change, drawing on the example of the Public Money for Public Goods (PMPG) principle in relation to the reform of EU and UK agriculture policy. We assess the factors which have promoted the adoption of the PMPG principle and the extent to which it is currently being realised under the EU's Common Agricultural Policy and the UK's post-Brexit agriculture policies. Drawing on a range of expert interviews, we find that policy concepts such as this have the capacity to be utilised by policymakers when looking to solve 'wicked' policy problems, and once mobilised, can gradually gain acceptance amongst stakeholders, lobbyists and policymakers over time. However, we also report evidence of dilution and mission creep, with a gap emerging between the original idea, its interpretation, and how it is realised in the messy world of policy advocacy and resistance. We conclude that advocates of the PMPG principle need to seize some recent windows of opportunities under an emerging set of post-Brexit set of land management schemes to further develop and implement this important policy idea. • How ideas shape public policy is studied using the 3I's - Ideas, Institutions, Interests. • Development and promotion of Public Money for Public Goods principle is examined. • Ideas have the capacity to be used to solve "wicked" policy problems. • Powerful ideas tend to be diluted when implemented in the policy arena. • Advocates must seize windows of opportunity for ideas to be mobilised effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dominant agricultural practices are widely recognised as one of many factors leading to severe declines in honey bees and other pollinators. Improving the agri-environment for pollinators and other species is an urgent ecological priority. Beekeepers have long been at the forefront of recognising agricultural and environmental challenges to their bees; many of these also impact other pollinators. As the UK moves towards a post-Brexit agricultural policy, this should be an excellent time for beekeepers' observations and concerns to be recognised, and contribute to a system where farmers and land managers ensure the delivery of 'public goods'. However, evidence suggests significant obstacles to effectively co-producing agricultural policy that ensures pollinator wellbeing. This paper is based on archival and interview data on long-term beekeepers throughout the UK. Beekeepers' past experience of engaging with agricultural, and pollinator health policy stakeholders highlights significant obstacles to effective co-production of policy. Beekeepers' experiential observations are commonly dismissed as anecdotal, and subsequently irrelevant knowledge, according to scientifically and politically acknowledged epistemological categories. Multiple stakeholders in agriculture and land management have opposing priorities, and unequal access to power. This presents significant challenges to government efforts to overcome boundaries and co-produce actionable policy. Internationally, significant steps have been made to incorporate hybrid knowledge, and its associated value systems into environmental governance. Developing agricultural policy which acknowledges and incorporates multiple forms of evidence and pro-environmental values is necessary for a successful post-Brexit agricultural system focused on Environmental Land Management, public goods, and multiple values of nature. • Beekeepers have historically attempted to contribute to agricultural policy. • Epistemological differences and structural barriers limit their contribution. • Addressing historical barriers and power imbalances can improve co-production. • Beekeepers' environmental values can support pro-environmental land management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brexit will have major implications for land use and the natural environment. The way in which we currently use the land resource is conditioned by the common agricultural policy (‘CAP’). Withdrawal from the CAP will offer opportunities to develop new policies to promote biodiversity and address pollution. This opinion examines the issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the membership of Orkney Islands with the European Economic Community (EEC) in the 1970s. Topics include the move by Orkney Islands representatives to enter into a network of new relationships following Great Britain's accession to the EEC, the tendency for the central government to ignore the needs of regional areas such as Orkney Islands, and the concerns among Orkney residents such as ferry services, Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Common Fisheries Policy (CFP).

Mitigation of agricultural diffuse pollution poses a significant policy challenge across Europe and particularly in the UK. Existing combined regulatory and voluntary approaches applied in the UK continue to fail to deliver the necessary environmental outcomes for a variety of reasons including failure to achieve high adoption rates. It is therefore logical to identify specific on-farm mitigation measures towards which farmers express positive attitudes for higher future uptake rates. Accordingly, a farmer attitudinal survey was undertaken during phase one of the Demonstration Test Catchment programme in England to understand those measures towards which surveyed farmers are most receptive to increasing implementation in the future. A total of 29 on-farm measures were shortlisted by this baseline farm survey. This shortlist comprised many low cost or cost-neutral measures suggesting that costs continue to represent a principal selection criterion for many farmers. The 29 measures were mapped onto relevant major farm types and input, assuming 95% uptake, to a national scale multi-pollutant modelling framework to predict the technically feasible impact on annual agricultural emissions to water and air, relative to business as usual. Simulated median emission reductions, relative to current practise, for water management catchments across England and Wales, were estimated to be in the order sediment (20%) > ammonia (16%) > total phosphorus (15%) ≫ nitrate/methane (11%) > nitrous oxide (7%). The corresponding median annual total cost of the modelled scenario to farmers was £3 ha − 1 yr − 1 , with a corresponding range of -£84 ha − 1 yr − 1 (i.e. a net saving) to £33 ha − 1 yr − 1 . The results suggest that those mitigation measures which surveyed farmers are most inclined to implement in the future would improve the environmental performance of agriculture in England and Wales at minimum to low cost per hectare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy crops are cultivated primarily for bioenergy production, but can also have wider benefits to agriculture and the environment. Policies put in place in the UK and Europe have promoted bioenergy and the growth of energy crops. Despite the various policy support mechanisms the cultivation of perennial energy crops has proceeded at a low rate. This study rigorously analyses some of the key UK bioenergy policies since 1990 to assess why perennial energy crops have not fulfilled their potential. The UK energy crops market is scrutinised and shows the industry is still nascent compared to Government aspirations. Case studies of both successful and unsuccessful projects are evaluated to reveal how effective different policies have been in establishing UK perennial energy crops. This original review shows significantly that none of the projects, initiatives or schemes described can be viewed as an absolute success. The main obstacles that have hindered progress include: the lack of long term supportive energy crops policy, the failure of headline projects and organisations, the lack of competitiveness of long term perennial crop options compared to annual crops, bureaucracy of schemes, over-ambitious projects, and large-scale support schemes tending to favour imported biomass rather than support domestic supply. 25 years of failed energy crops policy suggests there needs to be a long term strategy. Future support for the sector must join up policy between different Government departments to recognise multi-functional benefits of perennial energy crops. Support mechanisms could aim to provide a competitive advantage for local supply and use, and improve management of cashflows during establishment. The risk burden should be shared between suppliers and end-users. Smaller-scale projects using established technologies are required with energy crops introduced in a phased manner. Supply-side measures need to be balanced with demand-side incentives to link supply with end-user markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The electricity infrastructure in many developed countries requires significant investment to meet ambitious carbon emissions reduction targets, and to bridge the gap between future supply and demand. Perennial energy crops have the potential to deliver electricity generation capacity while reducing carbon emissions, leading to polices supporting the adoption of these crops. In the UK, for example, support has been in place over the past decade, although uptake and the market development have so far been relatively modest. This paper combines biophysical and socio-economic process representations within an agent-based model (ABM), to offer insights into the dynamics of the development of the perennial energy crop market. Against a changing policy landscape, several potential policy scenarios are developed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the market in providing a source of low carbon renewable electricity, and to achieve carbon emissions abatement. The results demonstrate the key role of both energy and agricultural policies in stimulating the rate and level of uptake; consequently influencing the cost-effectiveness of these measures. The UK example shows that energy crops have the potential to deliver significant emissions abatement (up to 24 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent year −1 , 4% of 2013 UK total emissions), and renewable electricity (up to 29 TWh year −1 , 8% of UK electricity or 3% of primary energy demand), but a holistic assessment of related policies is needed to ensure that support is cost-effective. However, recent policy developments suggest that domestically grown perennial energy crops will only play a niche role (<0.2%) of the UK energy balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimates of the magnitude and location of future irrigation demand are essential for strategic planning of water resources at national and regional levels. However, demand forecasting is fraught with difficulty, as water use for supplementary irrigation is highly sensitive to changes in agro-economic policy, climate and future water resources availability. Short-term forecasts are normally based on existing trends, modified by any expected variations. Following a long period of growth, the volume of water being abstracted for irrigation in England and Wales appears to be in decline. After allowing for annual weather variations, the underlying decline in dry year demand was -1.4% per annum from 1990 to 2010. Extrapolating these trends forward suggests a further reduction of around onequarter (-25%) by 2030. However longer-term forecasts (to the 2050s) need to consider alternative possible futures. The authors used a combination methodology to incorporate changes in population demographics, consumption and consumer preferences under a range of socioeconomic policies for four defined socioeconomic futures. The projected changes in 'unconstrained' demand in a dry year ranged from +40% to +167% by the 2050s; 'actual' water use will be constrained by water availability and allocation policy, which itself may lead to a relocation of demand. Combined with a probable decline in low-flow (summer) water availability, this indicates major future water resource issues. The figures need to be interpreted with caution as they are sensitive to model input values, and ignore impacts of stepchange genetic improvements and the effects of changing CO2 concentrations on crop growth. The differences between forecasts also highlight the sensitivity to assumptions and the potential impact of deeper-seated changes on current trends. Some policy options and potential adaptations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Statements of willingness to pay ( WTP) have been shown to be dependent upon the framing of the hypothetical market. In this paper we investigate the effects of variations in the timing and location of choice experiment questions concerned with conservation of a UK national park, as research involving measurement of psychological well-being suggests potential differences for the same individual dependent upon when and where preferences are elicited. We apply the choice experiment technique to the valuation of changes in upland agricultural and semi-natural landscapes in the Peak District National Park in the UK, to investigate whether timing and location of elicitation (context) affects the value associated with changes in ecosystem services under different management regimes. Four treatments are employed - using the same sample of individuals answering the same choice scenarios - to measure WTP ex-ante (off site), in situ (on site), and ex-post at two different time intervals (off site). We show that our on-site ( in situ) treatment generates very different estimates of preferences than any of the off-site treatments. That stated preferences associated with environmental goods are so context dependent may have implications for the use of stated preferences in policy analysis in terms of identifying how environmental policy is funded and the divergence in value attributed to sampling different populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prime Minister Robert Peel was forced to resign in 1846 over the Repeal of the Corn Laws. Far from being a relatively unimportant piece of agricultural legislation, the Corn Laws, and their continuance, formed part of the ideology of the Conservative Party of the time. By proposing to Repeal the Corn Laws, Sir Robert was attacking the beliefs on which his party had won victory in the 1841 General Election. The result was a serious split within the Conservative Party over the Corn Laws. The majority of Conservatives voted against their own government, while 114 'Peelite' Conservatives voted with Peel and the government. Why those particular Conservative Members decided to split away from their colleagues has been the subject of a large amount of research, mostly with 'demand-side' models which assume that the MP is little more than a mouthpiece for constituency interests. Peel's 1845 motion, a year before Repeal, to increase the yearly grant to the Irish Catholic seminary at Maynooth created very large controversy, and a backbench rebellion in which half of his own party voted against the government. As with Repeal, Maynooth passed only because the Opposition party decided to side with the government. This article uses principal component analysis and a classification tree analysis for the first time to show that while Conservative Members were voting with constituency interests in mind, their previous voting record over Maynooth is an overlooked and important predictor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper draws on ideas about policy innovation and adaptation to assess the extent to which 'payments for ecosystem services' (PES) can be seen as a challenge to traditionally more bureaucratic, state-centered ways of paying for the provisioning of environmental goods from agricultural landscapes through agri environmental policy (AEP). Focussing on recent experience in the United States and the UK, the paper documents the extent to which PES is now an established term of reference in AEP research and debate in both countries and postulates that this may usher in a new discourse of environmental provisioning in agriculture. The PES landscape is, however, currently highly fragmented and largely experimental, with 'PES-like' approaches being piloted in the field through partnerships between state agencies and localized private and charitable interests. State-supported AEP programs remain substantially intact, and rather than any displacement of state action, there appears to be a more gradual insertion of PES approaches and metrics into standard AEP operating procedures. This institutional stickiness is partly due to the continuing difficulty of agreeing the metrics necessary for measuring outcomes but may also be due to the politically well defended nature of traditional AEP entitlements and associated policy networks. We conclude by suggesting a need for further research to better understand these specifically political constraints and sources of resistance to PES and the ambiguous consequences for institutions, policy networks, rural communities and environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper will evaluate the differing responses of the farming community to the state directed food production of the second world war. In particular, it will explore the reasons why the vast majority of farmers endorsed the official directives to transform their farming methods, while evaluating the extent to which the relationship between the War Agricultural Executive Committee (WAEC) and the farming community was not always as harmonious as the conventional wisdom has suggested. Attention will also focus on the experiences, and legacy of individuals such as Rex Paterson and George Odlum, progressive farmers who used the legal system to challenge wartime officialdom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]