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Many bilinguals switch languages in daily-life conversations. Although this usually happens within sentence context and with another speaker, most research on the cognitive mechanisms underlying the production of language switches has studied individual words. Here, we examined how context influences both switching frequency and the temporal cost associated with it. Sixty Bulgarian-English bilinguals named pictures in their language of choice without any context, in a sentence context, and in interaction with another (recorded) bilingual. Switching frequency was lower, and costs higher, when bilinguals switched languages with context than without context. This suggests switching costs were not an artifact of tasks without context. Furthermore, both switching frequency and costs correlated across the tasks. In addition, we examined the potential influence of sentence context and the conversation partner. Predictability in sentence context has previously been argued to reduce language competition, which in turn could influence switching. We therefore compared sentences with a predictable or unpredictable target word. As hypothesized, bilinguals were less likely to switch languages when a word was predictable in its sentence context, potentially because words in the other language were less active. The conversation partner's overall switching behaviour had little impact on a bilingual's general switching rate, showing relatively low global alignment. However, local alignment was observed as switching was influenced by the partner's switching in the immediately preceding utterance. Together, these findings show that while production tasks without context can reliably measure switching costs, studying effects of context is necessary to better capture a bilingual's language-switching behavior.

Research has shown that speakers of different languages may differ in their cognitive and perceptual processing of reality. A common denominator of this line of investigation has been its reliance on the sensory domain of vision. The aim of our study was to extend the scope to a new sense-taste. Using as a starting point crosslinguistic differences in the category boundaries of edible bulbs, we examined whether monolingual speakers of English and bilingual speakers of Norwegian and English were influenced by language-specific categories during tasting. The results showed no evidence of such effects, not even for the Norwegian participants in an entirely Norwegian context. This suggests that crosslinguistic differences in visual perception do not readily generalize to the domain of taste. We discuss the findings in terms of predictive processing, with particular reference to trigeminal stimulation (a central tasting component) and the interplay between chemosensory signals and top-down linguistic modulation.

Embodied cognition posits that processing concepts requires sensorimotor activation. Previous research has shown that perceived power is spatially embodied along the vertical axis. However, it is unclear whether such mapping applies equally in the two languages of bilinguals. Using event-related potentials, we compared spatial embodiment correlates in participants reporting the source of auditory words as being presented from above or below their sitting position. English bilinguals responded faster for congruent presentations of high-power words (presented above) but not for congruent presentations of low-power words (presented below) in both languages. Low-power words together also failed to modulate N400 amplitude or interact with language. However, follow-up analyses on high-power words showed congruency effects on N400 amplitude in Chinese but not in English. Finally, English controls showed no effect. This suggests that spatial embodiment differs across languages in bilinguals, but the roles of culture and proficiency require further research.

This paper studies the two English synonymous words "little" and "small," and their Thai equivalents n??j4 and lek4. In addition to monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, British National Corpus, Thai National Corpus and an English-Thai parallel corpus were used in this study. It is found that "little" and "small" and their Thai equivalents are not precisely identical in meaning. In addition, there are some meanings that can apply to all these four English-Thai synonymous words. Therefore, a Thai learner of English may not be able to simply equate the use of "little" and "small" with n??j4 and lek4, and vice versa. Moreover, it is also found that "little" and "small" can be translated into Thai with some other words rather than n??j4 and lek4. This indicates the complexity of meaning in which "little" and "small" can connect to other related meanings and be translated into Thai with other words. This study suggests that information provided in dictionaries alone is not sufficient. Learners should learn how to use corpora as a resource to enhance their lexical knowledge in both languages.

Bilingualism has been the subject of a lot of research in the last century. Bilingualism is having the competence to speak two languages. The reasons for bilingualism of individuals may differ. Some of them may have parents from different languages, some may be children of ethnic minority or immigrants. In daily life it is possible to encounter more bilinguals than monolinguals. Bilingualism is not a new phenomenon, and it takes place in the media and news in different ways under different titles related to it. In this study, the news about bilingualism in the newspapers of the USA, the UK, France, Germany, and the Netherlands is analyzed in terms of content which is named as discourse analysis. The contents are categorized under five different titles which are neurological, social-cultural, psychological, educational, national categories. It has been found that majority of news related to bilingualism belong to educational category which shows that bilingualism draws attention and is given importance in educational contexts. Another categorization in this study is implemented for speech act categories. Each headline is categorized according to the speech acts which are representatives, directives, commissives, expressives and declaratives. In this study it was found that majority of headlines belong to representative category of speech acts.

This study explored whether the directionality of the relation between majority language and various facets of socioemotional development (three to 5 years old) differs between children with different language backgrounds. 12,951 children (49% girls; 85% White, 6% Pakistani and Bangladeshi, 3% Black, 3% Mix, 2% Indian) from the British Millennium Cohort Study (2001-2006) were included in two-time-point cross-lagged analyses. Models controlling for important covariates found a bidirectional association for monolinguals ([beta]s = 0.05, -0.07, -0.04), a unidirectional effect of majority language on socioemotional difficulties for dual language learners (DLLs) speaking English and minority language(s) at home ([beta] = 0.14), and a unidirectional effect of socioemotional strength on majority language for DLLs speaking only minority language(s) at home ([beta] = -0.17).

With a focus on an under-studied group of immigrants in the UK, this paper examines Iranian families' language ideologies and practices at home in relation to Persian acquisition and maintenance for their children. Working within a family language policy (FLP) framework, we draw on sociolinguistic data from semi-structured interviews with eighteen mothers to understand how parental beliefs, their everyday language practices and the attempts they make to maintain, improve, or alter their language use will lead to their children's heritage language acquisition and maintenance. The results of the study suggest that the success in heritage language development and maintenance boils down to parental pro heritage language ideologies and their everyday small-scale practices. It was also found that the interrelationship between language and cultural values and a successful FLP was further reinforced by the parents' migration trajectory and proficiency in English as the societal language. This research also showed that the large size of this diaspora in the UK (particularly in London), their close-knit social network, availability of heritage language weekend schools and the possibility of frequent visits to the home country create a conducive situation for the Iranian diaspora to raise their children bilingually.

This paper uncovers L1 Chinese speakers' online intercultural communication where they deploy English as a lingua franca and other spatial repertoires to co-construct translanguaging practices with their interlocutors and present three-fold identities--translingual, L1 Chinese, and legitimate users of English, leading to the argument that non-native English speakers and spatial repertoires play agentive roles in shaping English in the trends of globalisation and digitalisation.

Chinese learners of English often experience difficulty with English tense presumably because their native language is tenseless. We showed that this difficulty relates to their incomplete conceptual representations for tense rather than their poor grammatical rule knowledge. Participants made acceptability judgments on sentences describing two-event sequences that were either temporally plausible or misaligned according to verb tense (time clash). Both upper-intermediate Chinese learners of English and native English speakers were able to detect time clashes between events, showing that Chinese participants could apply tense rules explicitly. However, a predicted modulation of the N400 event-related brain potential elicited by time clashes in English-speaking participants was entirely absent in Chinese participants. In contrast, the same Chinese participants could semantically process time information when it was lexically conveyed in both languages. Thus, despite their mastery of English grammar, high-functioning Chinese learners of English failed to process the meaning of tense-conveyed temporal information in real time.

Background: At least 25% of autistic children worldwide have the potential to grow up in a bilingual environment. However, many autistic children are being denied opportunities to access additional languages and the cultural, familial and community connections that come with this. There is little evidence identifying the barriers to language learning and access, and no research addressing the perspectives of speech and language therapists (SLTs), who are crucial in supporting parents to make informed choices about bilingualism with their child. Aims: The aim of this research was to understand the experiences of SLTs working with autistic bilingual children, to understand the main considerations when working with families, and the opportunities and barriers for training, including the sources of information that current practice is based on. Methods and Procedures: Twelve SLTs from across the United Kingdom were recruited for this study. All participants were experienced in working with autistic bilingual children and their families (M = 7 years, range 4-23 years). Semi-structured interviews were conducted and focused on the experiences of SLTs regarding familial bilingual experiences, the effect of sociocultural factors of practice, and the extent to which practice is based on current research. Outcomes and Results: Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Three central themes were identified from the interviews: (1) participants discussed parental uncertainties as to whether they were doing the right thing for their child; (2) while participants were in support of bilingualism, they were not always confident that they were providing the right advice and found it difficult to in keep up to date with relevant, evidence-based research; and (3) participants highlighted a need to shift towards a more inclusive and culturally diverse practice. Conclusions and Implications: This is the first qualitative study to understand the perspectives of SLTs working with autistic bilingual children. We identify several key difficulties in supporting access to language learning, and these findings have immediate and longer-term implications for supporting SLTs, and in turn, the children and families they support.

This article sheds light on the linguistic and extralinguistic conditions that determine the likelihood of L1 grammatical attrition in late sequential bilinguals. We explore whether aspectual interpretations associated with the present tense may be a vulnerable area for the native grammar of 30 late Spanish-English bilinguals who have settled in the UK for over 15 years. Attrition of this property in L1 Spanish grammars has been reported by Cuza (2010. On the L1 attrition of the Spanish present tense. Hispania 93, no. 2: 256-272. doi:10.1353/hpn.2010.a382874) for Spanish-English bilinguals in the USA and Canada. Our finding of no attrition for UK-based Spanish bilinguals suggests that in Cuza's study, attrition may be mediated by dialectal variation in the L1 in the North American context, where Spanish is a widespread and visible community language. Further, we ascribe the absence of attrition to a specific characteristic of the grammatical distinction between the L1 and L2: where the L2 grammar provides options representing only a subset of the options available to the L1 for the corresponding grammatical property, attrition may be disfavoured.

Despite the extensive research on bilingual development, our understanding of how lexical competition unfolds in the bilingual mind remains limited. Previous studies have predominantly focused on crosslinguistic competition, neglecting the examination of the competition process within each language and the influence of diverse bilingual experiences, such as first language attriters, heritage speakers, or sequential bilinguals. Consequently, there is a critical gap in our knowledge regarding how bilinguals navigate and resolve competition dynamics during spoken word recognition in the context of language attrition. We compare the within-L1 and within-L2 competition mechanisms of Spanish-English attriters (N = 65) with two monolingual control groups (Spanish and English speakers). Participants completed two visual world tasks with manipulation of onset/rhyme overlap. Results indicate a contrast between the competition mechanisms exhibited by the L1 monolingual group and the Spanish attriters during L1 spoken word recognition. Our findings highlight the role of bilingual experiences in modulating L1 competition dynamics, shedding light on the complex relationship between bilingualism and lexical competition.

The paper outlines the functioning of Hungarian weekend schools in the United Kingdom, which are key institutions in emerging diaspora communities. The paper interprets Hungarian weekend schools in two paradigms: it approaches them as diaspora institutions, and also as Anglo-Saxon supplementary schools. One of the paper's main conclusions is that, in addition to the manifest functions of Hungarian weekend schools (e.g., preservation of national identity, mother-tongue education, community engagement), latent functions are also essential, such as the psychological need of belonging to a community, the support of children's educational attitudes, the consciousness of bilingualism, the enhancement of social capital, and integration into the host community. Thus, weekend schools are not only sites for knowledge transfer, but they also provide space for the institutionalization of diaspora as cultural community-building institutions.

Background: Non-word repetition (NWR) tests are an important way speech and language therapists (SaLTs) assess language development. NWR tests are often scored whilst participants make their responses (i.e., in real time) in clinical and research reports (documented here via a secondary analysis of a published systematic review). Aims: The main aim was to determine the extent to which real-time coding of NWR stimuli at the whole-item level (as correct/incorrect) was predicted by models that had varying levels of detail provided from phonemic transcriptions using several linear mixed method (LMM) models. Methods & Procedures: Live scores and recordings of responses on the universal non-word repetition (UNWR) test were available for 146 children aged between 3 and 6 years where the sample included all children starting in five UK schools in one year or two consecutive years. Transcriptions were made of responses to two-syllable NWR stimuli for all children and these were checked for reliability within and between transcribers. Signal detection analysis showed that consonants were missed when judgments were made live. Statistical comparisons of the discrepancies between target stimuli and transcriptions of children's responses were then made and these were regressed against live score accuracy. Six LMM models (three normalized: 1a, 2a, 3a; and three non-normalized: 1b, 2b, 3b) were examined to identify which model(s) best captured the data variance. Errors on consonants for live scores were determined by comparison with the transcriptions in the following ways (the dependent variables for each pair of models): (1) consonants alone; (2) substitutions, deletions and insertions of consonants identified after automatic alignment of live and transcribed materials; and (3) as with (2) but where substitutions were coded further as place, manner and voicing errors. Outcomes & Results: The normalized model that coded consonants in non-words as 'incorrect' at the level of substitutions, deletions and insertions (2b) provided the best fit to the real-time coding responses in terms of marginal R[superscript 2], Akaike's information criterion (AIC) and Bayesian information criterion (BIC) statistics. Conclusions & Implications: Errors that occur on consonants when non-word stimuli are scored in real time are characterized solely by the substitution, deletion and insertion measure. It is important to know that such errors arise when real-time judgments are made because NWR tasks are used to assess and diagnose several cognitive-linguistic impairments. One broader implication of the results is that future work could automate the analysis procedures to provide the required information objectively and quickly without having to transcribe data.

When conducting interviews with multilinguals, researchers make (often invisible) decisions about the interview language(s). Whilst the research design may require a particular approach in some cases, linguists generally recommend giving participants a choice or interviewing them in their first language. There are ethical and methodological reasons for considering this, such as the implications for self-expression -- including emotion communication -- and therefore data generation and analysis. This paper offers methodological reflections about planning and conducting a research interview in which the researcher and participant knowingly share two languages, shining a light on the process of building linguistic flexibility into a study. The case study is an interview conducted in French and English, which explored a bilingual client's language use in psychotherapy. The paper gives practical insights into offering a choice of language(s) and planning for the possibility of a multilingual interview (i.e. code-switching). It considers how to mitigate language insecurities before illustrating how the interview language(s) may be negotiated in interaction. I argue for researchers to set clear interview language policies which foreground inclusivity, and show in the process that interviews can become multilingual exchanges, in which both interlocutors experience linguistic freedom.

Following a period of close to a century when the Irish language was placed at the margins of the education system under British rule, there was a radical change in curriculum provision following political independence in Ireland in the 1920s. The importance of the Irish language in defining sovereignty, national identity, and nationhood in the Irish Free State was central to these curricular changes. Within months of the achievement of political independence, curriculum policy was revised to include provision for the teaching of the Irish language to all pupils in primary schools as well as the use of Irish as the medium of instruction in infant classes (the first two years of primary school). The education system became the linchpin in the political and cultural campaign to restore the Irish language as the vernacular. This paper critically examines how nationalist thinking in Ireland, which had its origins in nineteenth-century European discourses, impacted on curriculum decisions pertaining to the Irish language in the early 1900s. Focusing on the interrelationship between nationalism, language, and education, it traces the process and provisions of curriculum development in Ireland in the 1920s. Overall the paper argues that the influence of nationalism as understood in the wider European context of the time shifted emphasis in Ireland away from bilingualism (Irish and English languages) to the revival of the Irish language in the 1920s, primarily through the education system, to add political legitimacy to the new Irish Free State.

This study investigated the influence of first language (L1) phonology on second language (L2) early reading skills in Sylheti-English bilinguals (N = 58; 48% girls; British Bangladeshi) and their monolingual-English peers (N = 43; 45% girls; 96% White British, 4% multiethnic British) in a diaspora context. Language-specific phonological awareness and nonword repetition were tested at two time points (6;2-7;8 years-old). At Time 1, the bilinguals had lower productive accuracy for phonological sequences that violated their L1 phonology (d = 0.56; 0.84), and these skills accounted for a significant amount of variance in their reading accuracy. At Time 2, the language-specific effects were no longer present. These findings highlight the importance of considering language structure in multilingual early literacy development.

The article examines the transnational mobility experienced by two language teachers of Mexican origin, one who migrated to the United States and the other to the UK. Drawing on autobiographies and in-depth interview data, the analysis shows the complex relationship of different factors in shaping how the participants experienced their transnational mobility processes. These factors include differences in their sense of agency, the link between their bilingualism and their professional identities, and the emergence of different positionings regarding their previous and current work contexts. The article concludes by outlining the implications that the findings have for policy and practice.

This article examines the dynamics of heritage language (HL) identity development by analysing the life history accounts of three Chinese heritage language (CHL) learners growing up in the UK. Drawing on narrative data, the study contributes to the growing body of HL identity research by capturing the individual trajectories of CHL learners engaging with different interlocutors, at multiple sites, and across the lifespan. We report the various ways our participants are positioned by the essentialist discourses of Chineseness and how they learn to (re)position themselves as competent HL learners and legitimate members of the diasporic community. The findings highlight the need to understand HL learners' identity and agency as emergent from varied social interactions embedded within one's personal history. In light of the findings, we propose an original model to theorise the dynamics of HL identity development from a historical, spatial, and relational lens, and conclude with practical suggestions to encourage HL learning and maintenance.

13% of deaf children in the UK use more than one spoken language. Parents of deaf children from bilingual backgrounds must decide whether to communicate with their child using more than one spoken language, with or without a signed language(s) as well. As most deaf children are born to hearing parents with little or no knowledge of deafness, professional guidance received during this decision-making process is critical. This study examined the beliefs of professionals on the ability of a deaf child to acquire two spoken languages and the advice professionals give to parents considering spoken language bilingualism for their deaf child. 108 professionals who work with deaf children in the UK (50 Teachers of the Deaf [ToDs], 47 speech and language therapists [SLTs] and 11 audiologists) completed an online questionnaire between the 24th May 2019 and the 1st July 2019. Most participants believed deaf children can achieve spoken language bilingualism and would advise parents to speak in their home language, regardless of the parents' English proficiency. However, audiologists were 11 times more likely than SLTs to report linguistic confusion, and ToDs at least 11 times more likely than SLTs to report reduced proficiency in English and the home language because of bilingualism. ToDs and SLTs were found to play a key role in bilingual parents' decision-making process. Consequently, there is a need for specific training and interprofessional learning to ensure parents receive consistent evidence-based advice.

The primary aim of this study was to investigate prosodic prominence across three groups of Sylheti-English bilinguals: first-generation who arrived as adults, first-generation who arrived as children, and second-generation, i.e., born in the United Kingdom to parents who grew up in Bangladesh. To measure prominence, f0, duration, and intensity were measured across disyllabic words in Sylheti and English. The results showed significant differences in the ƒ0 analysis. Regarding monolinguals, Sylheti prominence displayed a rising contour, in contrast to the English falling contour. In Sylheti, the bilinguals born in the United Kingdom were the only group significantly different from the Sylheti monolinguals, displaying an English-like falling pattern in their Sylheti prominence. In English, the late arrival bilinguals displayed a Sylheti-like prominence realization, but the early arrivals and those born in the United Kingdom approximated the monolingual English prominence realization. Overall, language use patterns were the most significant factor related to the bilinguals' prominence realization.

Polish and English differ in the surface realization of the underlying Determiner Phrase (DP): Polish lacks an article system, whereas English makes use of articles for both grammatical and pragmatic reasons. This difference has an impact on how referentiality is rendered in both languages. In this article, the authors investigate the use of referential markers by Polish--English bilingual children and Polish monolingual children. Using the LITMUS-MAIN picture stories, the authors collected speech samples of Polish-English bilinguals raised in the UK (n = 92, mean age 5;7) and compared them with matched Polish monolinguals (n = 92, mean age 5;7). The analyses revealed that the bilinguals' mean length of utterance (MLU) in Polish was significantly higher than that of the monolinguals because the bilinguals produced significantly more referential markers (especially pronouns) which inflated their MLU. The authors posit that the non-standard referentiality used by the bilinguals in Polish is caused by cross-language transfer at the syntax-pragmatics interface. When producing narratives in Polish, Polish-English bilinguals overuse referential markers as cohesive devices in their stories, which is not ungrammatical, but pragmatically odd in Polish. Bilinguals tend to do this because they are immersed in English-language input, rich in overt pronouns. Thus, in the process of realizing the surface features of the Polish DP they partly rely on an underlying English DP structure.

Word knowledge and the speed of word processing in monolingual children and adults are influenced by word properties, such as the age of acquisition (AoA), imageability, and frequency. Understanding how different properties of words contribute to the ease of processing by bilingual children is a critical step for establishing models of childhood bilingualism. However, a joint impact of these properties has not been so far assessed in bilingual children. Here, we compared the impact of AoA, imageability, and frequency on accuracy and response times in picture naming and picture recognition tasks in monolingual and bilingual children. We used Cross-Linguistic Lexical Tasks to test 45 monolingual children (aged 4 to 7 years) and 45 migrant bilingual children in their L1 (Polish). Word AoA, imageability, and frequency independently affected the accuracy and response times in both picture naming and picture recognition tasks. Crucially, bilingual children were more sensitive to word characteristics than their monolingual peers: Bilingual children's accuracy was particularly low for words of high AoA (in the picture recognition task) and for words of low frequency (in the picture naming task). Also, the increase in response times for low-imageable and low-frequent words was particularly salient in bilingual children. The results suggest a new area of interest for further studies: the question of whether bilinguals and monolinguals show different sensitivity to psycholinguistic factors, and if so, does that sensitivity change with age or language exposure?

Bilingualism is a multi-faceted experience and bilinguals differ in how they use their languages in daily life. Therefore, assessments of bilingualism that consider the role of (social) context are needed when describing bilinguals. In this study, we evaluated how (reliably) the Language and Social Background Questionnaire (LSBQ; Anderson et al. 2018) describes language experiences of bilinguals living in the UK. Across 163 participants, nine factors were found to describe their daily-life language experiences in different contexts or with different interlocutors. Factors describing language use also correlated with objective English (L2) proficiency. These findings emphasise the need for studies to characterise bilinguals' daily-life language use in more detail and with a focus on the multi-dimensionality of bilingualism. Test-retest reliability (assessed across two weeks) was moderate to substantial, showing that the LSBQ might be a reliable tool to capture these bilingual experiences.

To what extent does emotional reactivity differ when bilinguals process input in their native (L1) or non-native language (L2)? Does the L1 elicit a significantly stronger emotional arousal or can salient second language experience generate comparably strong associations between emotions and the L2? These questions were addressed through two measures of emotional arousal, (online) skin conductance responses (SCR) and (offline) emotionality ratings. Russian-English late bilinguals, UK university students, were presented different types of university-related expressions in English and Russian. The vocabulary types were university-related emotionally-laden expressions ('???????'/'Plagiarism') and neutral words ('????'/'Circle'). Two main results emerged. First, in L1, SCRs showed a significantly increased electro-dermal activity when participants reacted to university-related words. Emotionality ratings showed contrasts based on stimulus type in both languages. These results indicate that university-related words qualify as a category of emotionally charged expressions. Second, between-language tests showed that electrodermal reactivity was not more reduced in L2 than in L1, which was also mirrored in emotionality ratings. These findings are located within the existing empirical context, and alternative interpretations are provided to further our understanding of how an emotionally salient L2 context contributes to shifts from mother tongue dominance to an increased emotional power of the second language.

Purpose: This sociolinguistic paper discusses the relationship between language and belonging from the perspective of Arabic-English speaking bilinguals. It explores what knowledge of language(s) means for the minority language speaker and investigates the challenges, consequences and opportunities multilingualism poses for its speakers in a globalised era that is fraught with re-imagining nationalism, country, security, loyalty, and belonging. The project reported in this paper aimed to (1) understand the symbolisms the Arabic language held for its speakers, (2) understand the ramifications knowledge of Arabic had for these bilinguals; and (3) explore how second generation Arabic heritage speakers define their identities and feelings of belonging to the UK. Method: Sixty-two people took part in the project; data was collected through a short survey followed up by interviews that further explored issues of multilingualism, identity and belonging. Data from interviews and qualitative responses from the survey were analysed thematically in light of Ingrid Piller's emerging linguistic social justice framework (Piller, 2016). Finding: The findings suggest that English and Arabic are equally important to speakers; additionally Arabic is highly symbolic for reasons of religion, family, and cultural ties. The results however, also point to the apprehensiveness speakers have in using Arabic in public because they fear that they may be deemed too different, weird, abnormal, dangerous, disloyal or untrustworthy (Tonkin, 2003). The data implies that such hesitation leads to an anxiety of being viewed as 'other' and challenges how some young people envision their current and future belonging to the UK society.

Research on inner speech is still in a nascent stage. The present paper investigates consecutive multilinguals' self-reported language use for inner speech with a focus on the L1 (first language) and L2 (second language). Its aim is to identify influential variables in these processes and to investigate if findings from previous studies are applicable across different L1s. The topic is approached using a triangulation approach, which consists of 24 in-depth interviews and a web survey study completed by 167 multilinguals from German-speaking and Asian backgrounds. Quantitative analysis showed that the L1 is generally used more frequently than the L2 in inner speech. Furthermore, high frequency of using the L2, naturalistic exposure to it and high self-reported proficiency in the L2 as well as a high bilingualism index boost its use for inner speech, as does the overall number of languages known. The qualitative analysis furthermore supports the crucial role of these variables in the internalisation of L2 inner speech and shows that they can even shift language use for inner speech entirely from the L1 to English (L2) in case it is frequently and proficiently used and in case a bi-/multilingual experiences naturalistic exposure to English in the L2 environment.

This experiment investigated comprehension monitoring in children learning English as an additional language (EAL) compared to monolinguals. Sixty-three 9-10-year-old children read texts containing an internal inconsistency (e.g. a barking kitten vs. barking puppy) while their eye movements were monitored. Standardized tests measured word reading fluency and vocabulary size and the children completed a questionnaire tapping rereading behavior. There was no overall difference between EAL and monolingual children. Regardless of EAL status, children with larger vocabularies were more efficient in their re-analysis of inconsistent information, as revealed by regressive eye movements. As efficient re-analysis of inconsistent information is essential for comprehension and is ubiquitous in proficient readers, the presence of this pattern in the children is indicative of successful online monitoring. However, rereading of inconsistent vs consistent words in the eye movement record was not related to children's self-reported rereading, not providing any support for deliberate rereading. Our findings indicate that successful online monitoring relies on strong word knowledge leading to efficient processing of texts, both for bilingual and monolingual children, and beyond deliberate rereading.

The paper describes the role parental language ideology and the home literacy environment play in heritage language (HL) literacy learning of bilingual Arabic-English-speaking children in the UK. Information about the under-reported literacy practices of Arabic-English-speaking families will enhance current knowledge about HL literacy practices within the home. Data were collected over a period of 12 months in the form of language background surveys, audio recordings of activities within the home and parental interviews. The analysis of data suggests that parents' HL ideologies are the impetus for language practices that develop children's literacy skills in Arabic and the motivation to create a literacy environment within the home. The families made small libraries, invested (much) time in learning the unique skills needed to master an additional orthographic system and sent their children to Arabic weekend schools. The most significant factor, however, in determining HL literacy development was mothers' HL proficiency. The main challenges were the diglossic nature of Arabic and difficulty in locating and affording Arabic literacy material that ensure systematic development of HL literacy skills.

Recent developments in multilingualism research urge us to move beyond seeing bilingualism as 'double monolingualism' and towards "translanguaging," which conceptualises language as a bundle of socially constructed linguistic resources that individuals can deploy to make sense of their multilingual world. Despite this theoretical development, the monolingualist ideology remains strong in child language acquisition and bilingual education. The One Parent One Language policy (OPOL) which I examine in detail in this paper is one of the most commonly practiced family language policies; it requires parents to constantly monitor their language practices at home based on the assumption that language is a fixed, countable, and complete system. Part of a broader ethnographic research with Japanese-English multilingual families in the UK, this article focuses on a single-family case study, through which it aims to critically examine the way in which OPOL is negotiated and exercised in situated language practices in the family home. Focusing particularly on language interactions between two pre- and early-school age children and their mother, the paper shows how the strategic and creative employment of linguistic resources by children undermines monolingualist dogmas that OPOL is reliant on. The paper thus makes a significant contribution to the empirical study of "translanguaging."

Bilingual language development might be characterized by transfer, deceleration, and/or acceleration, the first two being relevant for the language impairment diagnosis. Studies on bilingual children's productive phonology show evidence of transfer, but little is known about deceleration in this population. Here, we focused on phonological transfer and deceleration in L1 speech of typically developing Polish-English bilingual children of Polish migrants to the United Kingdom (aged 4.7-7). We analyzed L1 speech samples of 30 bilinguals and 2 groups of Polish monolinguals, matched to the bilinguals on age or vocabulary size. We found that bilingual children' speech (both simultaneous and early sequential) was characterized by transfer, but not by deceleration, suggesting that while phonological deceleration phases out in children above the age of 4.7, transfer does not. We discuss our findings within the PRIMIR model of bilingual phonological acquisition (Curtin et al., 2011) and show their implications for SLT practices.

According to the latest report of the (Office for National Statistics [2018]. "Births by Parents' Country of Birth, England and Wales: 2017." UK: Statistical Bulletin), 34% of children born in Britain have at least one parent from another country. With nearly 20% of children in primary schools categorised as speakers of English as an additional language, there remains much to explore in the field of heritage language (HL), also referred to as minority language. Through the concept of Family Language Policy (FLP), this paper reports on the bilingual experiences of five French-English transnational children in Britain. The study explores young heritage speakers' perspectives on growing up bilingually and their attitudes towards parental language management. Using a combination of interviews, language portraits and observations, this paper puts forward the variety of experiences among transnational children. The possible impact of parents' language planning decisions on children's experiences are discussed. The findings reveal the unique character of every child's bilingual experience and also indicate that children's perspectives may differ greatly from their parents', potentially leading to disharmony within the family. Finally, the study argues that a more integrative approach to FLP research, including children's views, is essential in order to understand the ramifications of parental language planning.

Reading and telling stories to children improves their narrative skills, which is well-documented for monolinguals, but not for bilinguals. We investigated whether bilingual narratives improve when the child is provided with a model story. We studied the narratives of Polish-English bilingual children (n = 75, mean age 5;7 years; months) raised in the UK. We elicited narratives through picture stories in two modes: told spontaneously and retold after a model provided by an adult experimenter. The bilinguals told and retold stories in Polish and English. The study combined a within-subject design, comparing the bilinguals' two languages, and a between-subject design, comparing the stories told and retold in Polish by the bilinguals and by Polish age-matched monolinguals (n = 75). We investigated whether retelling might improve bilingual and monolingual storytelling to the same extent. In the stories, we assessed both the macrostructure (e.g. story structure and answered comprehension questions) and microstructure (e.g. type-token ratio). We found a positive effect of retelling for the macrostructure in both monolinguals and bilinguals (regardless of the language). As for the microstructure, when retelling, children told longer stories, regardless of the language (Polish, English) and group (bilingual, monolingual). We argue that retelling stories improves the narrative skills of bilinguals.

Conole and Alevizou's social media typology (Conole and Alevizou, 2010) includes amongst its ten categories: media sharing; conversational arenas and chat; social networking and blogging. These are all media with which language learners are increasingly engaging (Lamy and Zourou, 2013). Social networking tools, in particular, which encourage informal, social communication have been identified as suitable for supporting language learning and their use is growing quickly. This paper reviews research on using social media for informal language learning. It will then discuss a small qualitative case study of Welsh learners' practices in using such resources. Welsh is a minority UK language spoken by around a fifth of the population of Wales. Unlike a majority language there is no need for English speakers in Wales to learn Welsh in order to communicate with Welsh speakers as all UK Welsh speakers are bilingual. Nevertheless there is great interest among adults in Wales and from Welsh families across the UK in learning Welsh. However there are two particular challenges: the small numbers of speakers (around 611,000), and their very uneven distribution. These two factors make it difficult for learners outside Welsh speaking "hotspots" to hear and practice Welsh. Social media has the potential to support Welsh language learning by providing resources wherever the learner is (particularly if they live in a non-Welsh speaking area or outside Wales completely) and by supporting web-based learning communities. The study reported here is concerned with the extent to which this potential is being exploited in practice. It employed interviews and a small survey to study the practices of learners at all stages of their language learning. It was found that learners used social media widely but those at different stages used social media somewhat differently, with beginners browsing to make contacts and gather information, listening to the language and watching Welsh programmes via the internet whilst some advanced learners set up practice groups, lead sub-communities and source and provide resources both on- and off-line.

This study aims at testing if Turkish L2 users of English process predictive conditionals different than Turkish monolingual speakers in accordance with Multi-competence Theory (Cook, 2003). For data collection grammaticality judgment tasks (GJTs) are used and unlike traditional GJTs, contexts are added to clarify the tasks. The participants consist of 15 monolingual and 15 bilingual Turkish university-graduates. The results are evaluated using both descriptive statistics such as mean, median and standard deviation and also SPSS to show that the differences found between the groups are statistically significant. The analysis of the results shows that there is a statistically significant difference between monolingual and bilingual Turkish speakers. This finding implies that second language (L2) users have a different language system than monolinguals and they should be evaluated and compared for both their first language (L1) and L2 on their own terms rather than monolingual native speaker norms.

This investigation aimed to provide insights into the controversial debate on the role that age at onset of bilingualism plays in human language capacity with a focus on what it entails for first language (L1) attrition. L1 performance of Turkish immigrants (n = 57) in the United Kingdom with age at onset ranging between 7 and 34 years was compared to that of Turkish monolingual controls (n = 29) across two linguistic properties: structural complexity and accent. Findings generally showed that although the immigrants achieved nativelike proficiency with respect to the overall structural complexity of their L1, this was not the case for accent as those with an earlier age of onset were less likely to sound like native Turkish speakers. We discuss these findings in relation to two competing theoretical models of age effects and suggest that attrition data need to be better accommodated within these models.

As universities in the Anglophone world attend to operating on a global stage, linguistic diversity in the sector has intensified. Historically, higher education has adopted language-as-problem orientations to managing linguistic diversity, viewing multilingual repertoires largely as an obstacle. An emerging body of work informed by language-as-resource orientations seeks to counter these deficit views. However, while timely, it risks treating the multilingual student population as a homogeneous group. This paper addresses this issue by developing a finer-grained understanding of student experiences of their multilingual repertoires with two groups of students from different socioeconomic backgrounds: working-class Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) undergraduate students and international postgraduate students from more socially elite families. By examining students' experiences of their multilingual repertoires in the institution, I demonstrate how universities stratify the linguistic diversity in their midst, arguing that this is resonant with elite-plebeian views of bilingualism. I contend that language-as-resource informed curriculum and pedagogy needs to attend to institutional practices that stratify linguistic diversity to avoid reinforcing a situation in which the multilingualism of students from professional and socially elite groups is reinforced while little is gained when it comes to the multilingualism of working-class BME students.

This paper investigates the extent of second language (L2) use in domains belonging to inner speech. The participants consist of 149 highly educated L2-competent sequential Polish-English bilinguals resident in the UK*. The independent variables include acculturation level, social network profile, length of residence, and predicted future domicile. The study combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches. All participants completed an online questionnaire, and 14 of these were also interviewed by the researcher. Results show that bilinguals who acculturate to a higher level, operate in majority L2-speaking social networks, and intend to remain in the UK indefinitely, use significantly more L2 across domains belonging to inner speech.

SNS (Social Networking Sites) are a ubiquitous social space for many, often involving the use of English as a lingua franca in highly multilingual and multicultural settings. This article presents an ethnographic investigation of communication among a group of international students on a popular SNS. The data illustrates the fluid and complex linguistic and cultural practices present in these social spaces. This has important implications for understanding intercultural communication; in particular, we argue that a transcultural perspective provides a significant new dimension to research in which borders between languages, communities and cultures are transcended, transgressed and transformed.

This special issue of "mediAzioni," the online journal of the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies on Translation, Languages and Culture (SITLeC) of the University of Bologna at Forli, derives from the "Study Day on Child Language Brokering" held in Forli in 2008. The Study Day began with a morning session during which established scholars in the field of child language brokering (henceforth CLB) from different countries were invited to talk about their research and studies and share the experience and expertise they have gained within different disciplines and with a variety of methodological approaches. The morning session was then followed by a round table in the afternoon entitled "Child Language Brokering: The point of view of institutions and former child brokers" aimed at presenting the point of view of the representatives of various public institutions as well as former language brokers who had acted as interpreters for their families in their young age. The issues described and discussed by the contributors and participants to both the morning and afternoon sessions where so varied and relevant to the topic of child language brokering that we decided to put together a volume that would provide an overview of how research on interpreting and translation activities performed by children and adolescents began, and of the development of current and future research in this field of study. For this reason, this volume includes not only contributions by the participants to the Study Day but also from other distinguished and established scholars in this field of research, as well as articles by new and emerging researchers. (Contains 4 footnotes.)

This paper explores linguistic landscapes and the enactment of public visibility and presence of non-majority linguistic groups in EU member states. Non-majority linguistic groups gain power, visibility and presence through the introduction of bilingual or multilingual signposts on roads, streets, squares, and public buildings in towns and cities where a given linguistic group represents a significant population share. The article offers a comparative analysis of language policies of EU member states regarding enactment of official bilingual or multilingual signs in public space. Twenty EU member states have signed the "European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages," while 17 members have ratified it. In addition, the Charter of Fundamental Rights, an integral party of the Lisbon Treaty, stipulates that language diversity is one of the fundamental values respected by the EU. Hence, this comparative research assesses various practices employed by member states in relation to the proclaimed values of multilingualism. Consequently, the paper depicts and compares different language policies that produce linguistic landscapes in EU member states. Finally, it tries to determine whether there is a convergence towards a common EU policy on bilingual and multilingual signs in public space.

This study attempts to tease apart the effect of dominant languages of communication on the acquisition of syntactic properties of L3 French in order to test the current L3 generative theories. Three groups of bilinguals took part in this study: L1 Persian/L2 English, with French as the dominant language of communication, L1 Persian/L2 English, with Persian as the dominant language of communication and L1 English/L2 Persian, with Persian as the dominant language of communication. English and French pattern similarly in the wh-question structures. That is to say, wh-question word moves pre-subject position while in Persian it remains "in situ." The results rejected the effect of the four proposals (e.g. the L1 factor; the L2 Status Factor; the Cumulative Enhancement Model [CEM]; the Typological Proximity Model [TPM]), but the role of dominant language) in the acquisition of the third language was confirmed by grammaticality judgment and element rearrangement task. The implication of this study suggests that the initial path of L3 acquisition is not determined by wholesale transfer or mixed transfer theories but rather by the learners' dominant language of communication.

This study explores the way in which bilingual children of primary school age who have become dominant in English are learning to be literate in the language of the home using dual language books provided by the school. It reports on how the mothers and their children used both texts to transfer skills from one language to another; to negotiate meaning in both languages; to compare reading strategies and how these vary depending on the language learned (Albanian, Turkish, French and Urdu). The study highlights the positive impact on children's confidence, on their personal identity as bilinguals in a multicultural British society, on their achievement in English literacy as well as the involvement of their parents in their schools. The study identifies the crucial role of the teacher and the school in providing a positive ethos in the classroom, and support and resources for parents.