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Currently limited information exists on how maternal supplementation with provitamin A carotenoids might influence the carotenoid pattern in breast milk during lactation. This study was designed to investigate the effect of maternal red palm oil supplementation ( approximately 12 g/d) throughout the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and the first 3 mo postpartum on carotenoid pattern in both plasma and breast milk. Plasma and breast milk alpha- and beta-carotene concentrations increased in response to red palm oil supplementation and were different (P < 0.001) from the control group at both 1 and 3 mo postpartum. Plasma lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations were reduced (P < 0.001) from pregnancy to 1 mo postpartum and remained stable until 3 mo postpartum. However, breast milk lutein concentrations, expressed per gram of milk fat, increased (P < 0.05) in both groups from 1 to 3 mo postpartum. The results of this study show that there are proportionally more hydrocarbon carotenoids such as alpha- and beta-carotene in plasma than in breast milk, whereas xanthophylls, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, are proportionally more prevalent in breast milk. More importantly, red palm oil supplementation increases the milk concentrations of provitamin A carotenes without decreasing the milk concentrations of xanthophylls. In summary, this study demonstrates that a regulated uptake of polar carotenoids into breast milk exists and that supplementation with alpha- and beta-carotene does not negatively affect this transfer. The mechanisms behind this transport are not fully understood and merit further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Tanzania, as in other developing countries, dietary intake of nutrients in pregnant women is marginal or lower than the recommended intakes and therefore these women are at high risk for deficiencies. Our aim was to evaluate the relationship between diet and plasma levels of retinol, carotenoids, and alpha-tocopherol in the third trimester of pregnancy. Ninety pregnant women aged between 18 and 45 years were equally recruited from three villages. Seven-day food frequency data was collected by questionnaire. Plasma levels of retinol, carotenoids, and tocopherols were assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results indicated that cooked green leafy vegetables constituted the major source of provitamin A carotenoids, with low intake of yellow/orange fruits and preformed vitamin A. Lutein, lycopene, and beta-carotene were the predominant carotenoids in the plasma with mean values of 1.61, 0.84, and 0.63 mumol/L, respectively. There was no significant correlation between frequencies of vegetable consumption and either plasma retinol or carotenoids. However, increased consumption of green leafy vegetables with oil, which increases bioavailability, was correlated with high plasma retinol levels (p = 0.03). Low retinol levels (< or = 0.70 mumol/L) were present in 26% of women. The mean plasma retinol concentration was 0.89 mumol/L and 63% of the women had values below 1.05 mumol/L. The mean plasma alpha-tocopherol concentration was 15.4 mumol/L and women with plasma retinol concentration > 1.05 mumol/L had significantly higher mean alpha-tocopherol than women with plasma retinol concentration < or = 0.70 mumol/L (p < or = 0.01). Twenty-four percent of the women were anemic (hemoglobin: Hb < 110 g/L) and the mean Hb value was 116.3 g/L.