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The aim of this article is to develop and validate an analysis instrument of principal' identity in the Swedish context. A point of departure is taken in the work of Crow, Day, and Møller (2017) and three dimensions of the concept: professional, personal, and situated or socially located. The article builds on a survey on Swedish principals covering questions of the three identity dimensions. The survey reached approximately 3,000 out of the 3,600 Swedish principals, generating 1,286 replies (n = 1,286). The analyses identified questions with strong and weak correlation with the three dimensions. Thus, the findings provide components for a more refined analysis instrument to analyze how principals' identity is formed and negotiated in different contexts without overlooking the fact that construction of identity is situated in time, space, and place. These findings also contribute to a more comprehensive image of principal's professional identity. Additional studies, however, are requested for a more in-depth understanding of the concept of identity in various leadership contexts.

The aim of this article is to explore how Swedish principals experienced the decentralisation and re-centralisation reforms and how they affected principals' autonomy and decision-making capacity. Data were obtained from three surveys of Swedish principals, carried out in 2005, 2012 and 2019. The results show that principals experienced a high degree of autonomy in their decision-making in 2005 and 2012 and also a balanced control from state and municipalities. At the time of the third study in 2019, principals continue to express a rather high degree of autonomy, but this autonomy is now combined with an increased degree of control. However, given the high degree of autonomy, in combination with low degree of conflicts between different stakeholders, the article concludes that the expression 'in the eye of the storm there is calm' appears to suit Swedish principals' decision-making, at least, in the development of decentralisation and re-centralisation.

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to expand knowledge on Swedish principals' professional development (PD) from the perspectives of superintendents. In particular, the article analyzes how superintendents understand and organize PD for principals. Design/methodology/approach: Empirical data are derived from a strategic sample of ten (n = 10) superintendents. Transcribed interviews were analyzed in two steps. The first step was carried out inductively to identify prominent aspects of PD for principals. In the second step, the detected themes and categories were analyzed more deductively through the theoretical lens of learning in organizations. Findings: The analysis revealed that the purpose of PD for principals and the principal leadership that must be nurtured from the perspective of superintendents spans a scale, from knowing what is already required to critically examining and exploring the unknown. In addition, the understanding of learning stretches from an individual enterprise to a collective activity. However, noteworthy differences between the superintendents were detected and organized into three ideal types. Research limitations/implications: Despite a profound research design and a careful selection of superintendents, the sample sets some limits because of the plurality within the decentralized Swedish school system. Practical implications: The results can support strategies from superintendents, principals and educational authorities to build infrastructures that foster PD at different levels of school systems. Originality/value: This article offers a novel perspective by analyzing principals' PD from the perspectives of superintendents.

This article analyses how school leaders depict their autonomy and how they make sense of the relationship between autonomy and control. Attention is drawn to three leadership focuses: the pedagogical direction of the school, decision-making over the internal organisation, and school improvement work. The article integrates survey data on Swedish school leaders (n = 1286). In addition, two theoretical categories were applied in the qualitative data analysis to explore how school leaders and local education authorities and its independent counterpart make sense of the relationship between autonomy and control: technical sense-making (TSM) and critical reflective learning. The findings showed that school leaders, both in public and independent schools, experienced a rather high degree of autonomy within the three focuses. The findings also indicated that school leaders in independent schools experienced a higher degree of autonomy regarding the pedagogical direction of the school and school improvement work. However, the effect sizes were low, indicating that the results must be considered with caution. The qualitative data analysis, in turn, revealed an overall emphasis on TSM among school leaders both in public and independent schools, reducing the possibilities for a novel and vibrant leadership. Based on these results, the article concludes that autonomy could constitute an important prerequisite for school leadership, but making sense of the relationship between autonomy and control stands out as even more important for successful school improvement.

This article presents the development and application of a model that can be utilized to compare the autonomy of principals in various historical and national contexts. Drawing on former conceptual work on autonomy in education, the model conceptualizes principal autonomy as two-dimensional. The first dimension is the decision making expected from principals, manifested on a continuum of being restricted or extended. The second dimension is the control imposed on principals, also varying between a restricted or an extended nature. In relation to each other, restricted/extended decision making and control can result in four different governance configurations that impact principals' work complexities. We apply the model for the description of the development of Swedish principals' work conditions over time and for a comparison of the autonomy of Nordic principals. With this endeavour, we demonstrate how historical and nation-specific particularities in educational governance interact with limitations and opportunities of educational leadership. Moreover, we argue that a focus on the autonomy of various stakeholders in schools might be a fertile strategy for further understanding the confusing concept of school autonomy.

The aim of this article is to analyze the perceptions on the local school and further education in the local community from a school leader's perspective. Another aim is to explore characteristics of sparsely populated rural areas. Data were derived from a survey on Swedish school leaders (n = 1,270). The results show significant variances between four municipality types -- the local school and further education are, according to the school leaders, generally valued highest in the large cities and lowest in sparsely populated rural municipalities. The article also reveals certain details of sparsely populated rural areas, for instance, a different type of expectation but also value of the local school, and well-developed collaborations between the schools and the local community. Furthermore, low expectations on the local school is also voiced by school staff. These nationwide results contribute to ongoing discussions on school leadership and education in the Scandinavian countries.

This article explores Swedish principals' emotional identity by employing an analysis instrument built up of three dimensions identified in the study by Crow, Day, and Møller (2017): "the professional," "the situated or socially located," and "the personal dimension." The article builds on data obtained from a survey given to Swedish principals, completed in January 2019 (n = 1,286). The findings show that all three dimensions constitute important parts for Swedish principals' emotional identity. The analysis also detected significant variances within the three dimensions regarding gender, age, and type of principal. Aside from these empirical findings, the article also offers a theoretical contribution because the analysis instrument succeeds in capturing the three dimensions. Thus, the article bridges data to theory in a way not previously done. The findings disclose the need for further studies in various contexts for a wider and more in-depth understanding of principals' emotional identity.

This article explores newly appointed principals' descriptions of a decentralised and market adopted school system. An institutional logics perspective is applied to analyse how logics visible at the national level evoke images among principals at the local level. Empirical data consist of 66 examinations from the National Principal Training Programme in Sweden, in which principals were required to discuss the forms of school system governance by using a 'cross model' outlined by Berg. Regarding the relationship between centralisation and decentralisation, principals generally tended to recognise and support the recentralisation logics. Observing the relationship between regulation and market orientation, many principals questioned the prevailing market logics. Concerning reforms to underpin school improvement, principals mostly suggested stronger state governance and further reregulation reforms. These institutionalised depictions, which favour the 'strong state' together with a quite compact resistance towards market orientation, are relevant to consider both from national and international perspectives.

This article focuses on the interplay between the concepts of 'educational infrastructure' and 'organisational memory'. Using data from collaboration between a Swedish university and a local municipality, the article draws attention to the interplay between three nation-wide improvement programmes and their educational infrastructures, and the knowledge developed and stored in the local schools. The data analysis is supported by the theoretical concept of organisational memory built up by 'soft' and 'hard' forms of knowledge. The findings show that primarily soft types of knowledge were developed and stored in organisational memory in the local schools. The programmes, therefore, became highly dependent on leaders' and teachers' personal knowledge and commitment, in-job training, imitation and socialisation. Regarding hard types of knowledge, for example, clear guidelines, organisational routines, processes and roles for improvement work, the programmes and their infrastructures were, generally, less supportive. These findings illuminate the importance of an organisational learning perspective in successful school system improvement.

This article explores organisational routines introduced in schools and preschools in a Swedish municipality and analyses the relationship between ostensive and performative aspects of improvement work. We take our theoretical point of departure in organisational psychology and an organisation development (OD) perspective by integrating the coupling mechanisms of decoupling, assimilation and accommodation to former research. The analysis shows that the ostensive and performative aspects of organisational routines must be closely connected if improvement initiatives are to impact daily practice. For this to happen, leaders of improvement work must design and operate development programmes that go beyond decoupling by also enabling assimilation and at least partial accommodation. The findings from this study provide a theoretical contribution to understanding the relationship between ostensive and performative aspects of organisational routines; in other words, the ways in which organisational routines play out in practice.

This article aims to explore educational infrastructures for superintendents' and deputy superintendents' professional development and to analyse what kind of professional development these infrastructures bolster. The article builds on a qualitative case study focusing on the central municipal level in Sweden. Findings are based on data from digitally conducted interviews with superintendents and deputy superintendents. The results show that prevailing infrastructures mainly emphasise rational understandings of knowledge and people and practical skills, making it possible for superintendents to carry out their everyday tasks. To a lesser extent, infrastructures support questioning the taken-for-granted understandings on school leadership and challenge and reshape collective professional knowledge in partnership with other professionals. Therefore, the results indicate that theory and research are seldom used as a basis for professional development. In addition, the analysis also showed that superintendents' professional development is more linked to personal initiatives and motivation rather than planned initiatives the municipal and/or state-level administration designed. The article concludes that infrastructure design, at different levels of the school system, must consider different approaches for professional development given the complexity of and expectations on superintendents' work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Using a large-scale school improvement program in Sweden as a case, this article aims to explore the state governance of a large-scale school improvement program in Sweden and how officials at the state agency level made sense of the reform ideas and operationalized them in policy actions. Design/methodology/approach: Data were integrated from Swedish Government Official Reports and formal directives from the Ministry of Education. Officials of the Swedish National Agency for Education (SNAE) were also interviewed. Data were analyzed to identify how regulatory rules, professional norms and cultural–cognitive beliefs shaped SNAE's design of the program. Findings: The article shows how different types of governance (i.e. regulatory rules, professional norms and cultural–cognitive beliefs) set the direction for managing large-scale school improvement. In particular, in the studied case, the lack of clear regulatory directives enabled sensemaking processes clearly influenced by normative ideas and cultural–cognitive beliefs. Research limitations/implications: The findings are mostly presented from the perspective of managers, so further study is required to attain a broader understanding of the state agency level's role and function. Practical implications: By illustrating the strengths of understanding various dimensions of educational governance, the findings are highly relevant to both policymakers and educational managers at different levels of school systems. Originality/value: The article offers a valuable perspective on large-scale school improvement and educational governance by focusing on a level that has hitherto received little attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports findings from a case study carried out in a Swedish municipality focusing on a school-to-school collaboration established to support implementation of a nation-wide curriculum. The aim was to study how ideas for improvements in this temporary organisation were transferred to the local schools. The findings presented are derived from audio-recordings (n=13) and semi-structured interviews (n=21). Community of practice theory and the concepts of boundary objects and brokering guided the analysis work. The results revealed that, generally, transfer was restricted to boundary objects with a closed character, meaning these objects should be distributed to and unpacked in the local schools without further dialogues and modifications. In addition, non-formal brokers had less capacity to extend and lead improvement processes in local schools. This approach also reduced the possibilities for principals and teachers in the local schools to benefit from more advanced learning discussions and understandings developed in the temporary organisation. The article shows that designers of improvement work must consider boundary objects with a more open-ended character, permitting an innovative interpretation and learning process. Finally, in this process the findings also reveal the importance of formal brokers underpinning a transfer process in which both participation and reification are considered.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to analyse the Swedish National Agency for Education's launch of the nationwide Lgr11 curriculum reform and how local education authorities (LEAs) in one municipality translated and responded to the National Agency's directives. Design/methodology/approach: This paper presents empirical data from a qualitative study of documents and interviews using the analytical perspective from Scott (2001, 2008) to explore regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive aspects of the National Agency's communications. To analyse the local translations made by LEAs at the central municipal level, analytical categories of assimilation, loose coupling and transformation were used. Findings: The overall results show that the National Agency primarily communicated its policy instructions to LEAs using normative and cultural-cognitive arguments and directives. The lack of sharper regulative directives, such as for division of labour, decision making, mandates and developmental roles, reduced the potential for LEAs to become influential actors in organising local implementation. An analysis using the assistance of assimilation categories, loose coupling and transformation of the paper also shows that LEAs need system support to accomplish more innovative middle-tier translations through elements of loose coupling and transformation--to become catalysts for school system improvement. Research limitations/implications: The research is designed to understand actions and interpretations within specific institutional, organisational and social settings. Originality/value: This paper contributes to former findings by offering a novel perspective for understanding policy translation and the role of middle-tier intermediaries in decentralised education systems.Administrative

This article explores sense-making in a municipality-led temporary organization established in response to the introduction of a new curriculum and marking system in Sweden. Qualitative data were extracted from audio-recorded interviews (n = 18) and observations of central subject group meetings (n = 6). By applying core elements of sociological theories of sense-making, the findings suggest that participants established coherent knowledge structures by pragmatic task interpretation and reduction of complexity in connection with disruptions of the work. The forms of complexity reduced were related to the specific tasks assigned and the separate, short-term nature of the organizational units. The article concludes that the process of sense-making impacts the character and outcome of development efforts by temporary organizations.

Despite a growing body of research, there is an urgent need for studies on principals' work during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given that Sweden, unlike most other countries, decided to keep schools open during the pandemic there is plenty to learn from the Swedish case. This article explores how Swedish principals experienced their autonomy before the pandemic and whether and how the experience of autonomy changed over the course of the pandemic. Data from 14 urban principals were integrated in order to analyse principals' autonomy within four domains of their work. The results indicate that principals experienced a high degree of autonomy in their work, both before and during the pandemic. At the same time, they experienced a significant degree of control from state and local municipal level. The article adds important pieces to the current body of research by showing how autonomy and control impinge upon principals' work and leadership in times of crisis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to undertake a comparative investigation of school administration to understand further the frames of curriculum making. School administration is an under-illuminated aspect of curriculum research. The paper commences from the notion that, in mass education, a school system is operationalized by many schools, which are coupled to each other and to political decisions. Here is the curriculum vital. Building on the classic work of Stefan Hopmann, a curriculum is part of the administrational structure of the school system. The Article suggests several categories that can describe the nature and function of school administration in various contexts. There are external matters of schooling, such as school buildings, school food, etc. and internal matters of schooling, such as curriculum, pedagogy, and evaluation. Individual schools and school administration are coupled via licences, and programmatic, professional, and procedural supervision. The article employs these categories with a comparison of a decentralized Sweden and a centralized Germany. The comparison investigated 290 Swedish municipality school administrations and 45 state education authorities in 4 German federal states. In this comparison many interesting similarities between both contexts can be hightligthed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article targets local school improvement in Sweden and temporary systems as a model to organize improvement work. These data are based on a qualitative case study of teacher groups constituting a temporary system representing the different subjects in comprehensive school in a medium-sized urban municipality. A total of eight interviews were carried out with the head of the education administration, two central school developers, one school district leader, and four principals. The intentions and descriptions of the early start of the project were analyzed deductively using temporary system theory in combination with the social- versus the techno-structure qualities of an organization. The results show a dominance of techno-structure qualities through the time, task, team, and transition concepts of the temporary system. This is particularly significant with regard to transition. The findings suggest that knowledge of the features and functions of temporary systems in schools is insufficient, in spite of the fact that it is often used as an improvement approach. Therefore, the authors argue that the socio-structure qualities should be considered more centrally in order to successfully promote the innovative and learning functions of the temporary system.