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This study followed an interdisciplinary mixed approach that consisted of social research methods and geospatial technology to investigate the livestock mobility of four pastoralist groups from Sudan and two Ethiopian pastoralist groups who fled to Sudan due to the conflict in the Tigray region. The study area is a shared borderland located between the two countries and is part of Gadarif State in Sudan and the Tigray and Amhara regions in Ethiopia. The findings of the study showed that there are diverse types of pastoral mobility in the borderland, ranging from short and circular movement to wide and directional type of mobility in response to seasonal variations, the spread of mechanised farming and the eruption of insecurity events. Despite facing numerous challenges including the governments' restrictions on cross-border movement and the prevalence of looting and rustling, trans-boundary mobility is practised by most pastoralist groups in the borderland. Pastoralist leaders are playing an important role in facilitating cross-border mobility. The recent conflict in the Tigray region forced many Ethiopian pastoralists to flee to Sudan with their animals, and they have had to cope with this situation by reducing the number of head they own and limiting their mobility to a more confined area. Despite competing claims by both governments, there is a pressing need for a cooperative land management policy applying soft border arrangements that incorporate customary land use rights for pastoralists from both sides, instead of the hardline border policies currently in place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the dynamics of pastoralist herd mobility in West Darfur State, Sudan, a region affected by persistent conflict. The paper examines the annual cycle and seasonal trajectories of mobility for camels, cattle, and sheep, comparing mobility patterns by livelihood specialisation and reviewing the mobility of multi-species herds. Using social research tools and remote sensing livestock tracking technology, the study found diverse livestock mobility patterns within the region. Conflict and insecurity have reduced the freedom and flexibility of these movements. Persistent insecurity combined with climate shocks have led to adaptations, including changes in herd species composition and owner preference, and a shift from long to short-distance mobility closer to the home area. Ultimately these changes have undermined the resilience of the pastoral system. The paper considers the implications of these changes in pastoralist mobility for humanitarian needs, building livelihood resilience and promoting peaceful integration with other users of natural resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We invited 108 psychiatrists of Sudanese origin, working in and outside Sudan, to take part in a study looking at the most appropriate method for scaling up mental health services in Sudan. Of those psychiatrists who were approached, 81 (75%) responded. Among the respondents, 30 (37%) resided and worked in Sudan, and 51 (63%) worked outside Sudan (mostly in the UK and Arab Gulf States). Most respondents preferred the lay counsellor model (43, 53.2%) to address the current shortage of human resources for scaling up mental health services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sudan is a hot spot for forest degradation. Efforts to maintain what remains of its forests should be of the highest priority. However, precise information on its forests' current state is very limited. Therefore, in order to effectively intervene in support of existing resources, it is important to have a better understanding of processes taking place in the country and impacting those resources. The objectives of this study are to quantify the consequences of land use and land cover (LULC) changes on forest degradation and fragmentation and to analyze the anthropogenic factors causing it, taking Erawashda Forest, eastern Sudan, as an example. The study utilized a series of Landsat imageries, field surveys and interviews with informants to analyze the decrease in forest cover. The years between 1973 and 2015 saw a 16.9% and 5.4% increase in bare land and large-scale mechanized agriculture respectively. During the same period there was a 37% decrease in dense forest cover and a 20% increase in light forest cover. The trajectory analysis showed that all LULC categories are subjected to very rapid changes from one class to another throughout the period of the study and the most dynamic class is light forest cover. Computed fragmentation indices showed that large core is the dominant category. Key informants identified the main factors of degradation and fragmentation as the expansion of mechanized rain-fed agriculture, felling of trees and wood cutting, bad grazing activities, and construction of infrastructure. Information garnered from this study can provide a good basis for forest rehabilitation programs and can also be used for developing proper management plans that take into account the needs of the communities utilizing the forest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The loss of about 4 million ha of land in East Sudan to mechanised rain-fed agriculture severely restricts pastoral mobility, as much of this land is the traditional rangeland for different transhumant pastoralists and smallholder farmers in the area. The aim of this paper is to map the current transformations of the migration patterns of transhumant pastoralists in East Sudan as a result of the land appropriation, by taking the Lahaween ethic group as an example. The paper followed a mixed approach of mapping, geo-coded field trips using GPS device, focus group discussion and key informant interviews. The findings showed that the annual movement of the Lahaween covers approximately 350 km. They spend 77% of their annual cycle in the summer areas. Frequent and rapid herd movement is a principal strategy in the process of coping with land appropriation. Other coping and adaptation mechanisms taken by the Lahaween included separation of animal types; separation of herds from households; fragmentation of households; use of vehicles and mobile phones in managing herds; entering the national game park; and crossing the international border. The need to promote and facilitate livestock mobility is a longstanding claim in the region. However, the continued neglect of livestock movement territories by state planners is a contested issue which might add a new dilemma of conflict to the country. The mapping exercise presented in this paper is expected to offer a technical guide for solving the problem of congested mobility. It also provides decision-makers with the current territories of pastoralists' movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capturing of communal resources by investors is one of the pressing tragedies facing customary land tenure systems in Africa. This article aims to look into how large-scale mechanized agriculture is encroaching into communal rangeland in Sudan and its social and environmental consequences. It scrutinizes the steps that large-scale farmers (LSFs) have to follow in order to acquire communal resources. It is clear that the government overwhelmingly serves the interest of economic elites from urban centers by offering a diversity of support in a way that the rights of traditional local land users e.g., pastoralists and smallholder farmers are detriment. The most important formal change was the 1996 ministerial act which legitimized the illegal situation of the LSFs. At the same time, LSFs have not been forced to comply with regulations issued by state institutions. Using their financial potentialities, LSFs are not only accumulating large amounts of land but are also heavily involved in livestock rearing. Among the immediate consequences of converting communal property to individual property is creating a fertile environment for conflicts between different land users. Moreover, introducing of agricultural machinery in such marginal area is causing adverse environmental consequence such as severe soil degradation and desertification. The paper concludes that failure of the pastoralists and smallholder farmers to defend their land tenure rights might be explained by their political marginalization and the absence of their representative institutions. This calls for a new national land use legislation approach that incorporates the rights of rural communities and their associated traditional land use systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Consumption of medicinal plants to overcome diseases is traditionally belongs to the characteristics of most cultures on this earth. Sudan has been a host and cradle to various ancient civilizations and developed a vast knowledge on traditional medicinal plants. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the antioxidant, antiangiogenic and cytotoxic activities of six Sudanese medicinal plants which have been traditionally used to treat neoplasia. Further the biological activities were correlated with phytochemical contents of the plant extracts. Methods: Different parts of the plants were subjected to sequential extraction method. Cytotoxicity of the extracts was determined by dimethylthiazol-2-yl)- 2,5diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay on 2 human cancer (colon and breast) and normal (endothelial and colon fibroblast) cells. Anti-angiogenic potential was tested using ex vivo rat aortic ring assay. DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) assay was conducted to screen the antioxidant capabilities of the extracts. Finally, total phenolic and flavonoid contents were estimated in the extracts using colorimetric assays. Results: The results indicated that out of 6 plants tested, 4 plants (Nicotiana glauca, Tephrosia apollinea, Combretum hartmannianum and Tamarix nilotica) exhibited remarkable anti-angiogenic activity by inhibiting the sprouting of microvessels more than 60%. However, the most potent antiangiogenic effect was recorded by ethanol extract of T. apollinea (94.62%). In addition, the plants exhibited significant antiproliferative effects against human breast (MCF-7) and colon (HCT 116) cancer cells while being non-cytotoxic to the tested normal cells. The IC50 values determined for C. hartmannianum, N. gluaca and T. apollinea against MCF-7 cells were 8.48, 10.78 and 29.36 µg/ml, respectively. Whereas, the IC50 values estimated for N. gluaca, T. apollinea and C. hartmannianum against HCT 116 cells were 5.4, 20.2 and 27.2 µg/ml, respectively. These results were more or less equal to the standard reference drugs, tamoxifen (IC50 = 6.67 µg/ml) and 5-fluorouracil (IC50 = 3.9 µg/ml) tested against MCF-7 and HCT 116, respectively. Extracts of C. hartmannianum bark and N. glauca leaves demonstrated potent antioxidant effect with IC50s range from 9.4-22.4 and 13.4-30 µg/ml, respectively. Extracts of N. glauca leaves and T apollinea aerial parts demonstrated high amount of flavonoids range from 57.6-88.1 and 10.7-78 mg quercetin equivalent/g, respectively. Conclusions: These results are in good agreement with the ethnobotanical uses of the plants (N. glauca, T. apollinea, C. hartmannianum and T. nilotica) to cure the oxidative stress and paraneoplastic symptoms caused by the cancer. These findings endorse further investigations on these plants to determine the active principles and their mode of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study seeks to provide a contribution to the understanding of vegetation regrowth on abandoned agricultural land by investigating the impacts of the previous cultivation period and the duration of the fallow on the subsequent natural regeneration in terms of vegetation composition, structure and diversity. The results of the study show that both factors have significant effects on the subsequent regeneration of plant species and thus the vegetation development in the southern Gadarif Region, Sudan. The oldest abandoned farmlands were recolonized by tree/shrub species, whereas recently abandoned ones are covered with herbaceous vegetation. There is a general tendency regarding the number of species to decrease with an increase in the period of cultivation. The plant species diversity pattern shows domination of herbaceous species with some scattered woody species. Vegetation changes due to land abandonment may have implications for the conservation of plant species diversity and composition of fauna harboured in the region. Although natural regeneration could be recommended as means of restoring natural vegetation that previously dominated that region, the current regeneration capacity might not be sufficient to reach the climax vegetation except for some pockets, which received more regenerative resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vegetation cover in Gadarif Region, Sudan, underwent drastic changes within the last 60 years because of the combined effect of anthropogenic and climatic factors. As a consequence, a large number of plant species are threatened or even became extinct, and vast areas are now deforested. The purpose of this study is to use the local knowledge as a tool to identify and describe patterns of vegetation changes associated with the introduction of mechanized rain-fed agriculture in the southern Gadarif Region. Data were collected by interviewing 10 key informants and 41 large-scale farmers. The results provided rich ethnobotanical knowledge and a clear historical perspective of vegetation changes including plant species which have disappeared, decreased and increased in the area. The main factors leading to changes in plant species composition and abundance were vegetation clearance, charcoal and firewood production, wood cuttings, grazing and recently herbicides application. Respondents acknowledged that grazing, duration of abandonment, length of cultivation period, amount and variability of rainfall, fire events and weed composition are the major factors determining succession on fallow land. Farmers showed interest to preserve some multi-purpose woody species (e.g. Acacia senegal, Balanites aegyptiaca) in their land. Such species should be given priority in rehabilitation activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information of Nswt-bity as "king of Egypt and the Sudan" in the 25th.Dynasty and the Kushite Kingdom. Topics discussed include the Kingdom of Kush was established in the Sudan around the tenth century B.C by local rulers and with local traditions; and here was a conflict between priests of Amun and the king Tekeloth II in the Twenty Second Dynasty.

An integrated water management plan is proposed taking into account all relevant water assets of Eastern Sudan. The plans include combined actions of water transfer, use of surface supplies in the south at the times of excess flood water, recharging groundwater in selected basins, blending supplies from different sources, alternating sources of groundwater production, changing demand, developing groundwater banking programs, and implementation of wastewater infrastructures. Specific projects are proposed in order to face these challenges for Port Sudan and Gadaref. Alternative financing methods, including regional and local funding, are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The Sudanese cattle migrations described here traverse a distance of 400 km. • In East Darfur, migratory livestock production is resilient to rainfall fluctuations. • Mobile producers are exposed to increasing pressures on their mobility. • Pastoralists need sympathetic governance to mediate shared land use. At their furthest extent, the livestock migrations examined in this paper traverse a distance of 400 km or more along a north-south transect, crossing up to half a dozen distinct ecological zones and, upon occasion, the international border between Sudan and South Sudan. Official Sudanese recognition of the value of migratory livestock production has led in recent years to policy and legal changes that support pastoral mobility, but there remains a gap in the scientific evidence that can be called upon to inform this emerging awareness. This paper uses remotely sensed livestock tracking data to document pastoral behaviour in relation to some of the biophysical factors that are important for livestock survival and production. This research supports several policy-relevant conclusions: 1. In East Darfur, long-distance migratory livestock production is remarkably resilient to rainfall fluctuations, including drought and flooding, because movement cycles are already designed to accommodate this kind of variability. 2. Mobile livestock producers are exposed to human-generated disruption and increasing pressures on their mobility from expanding farms, localized conflict and insecurity, and a new international border. 3. Pastoralists need sympathetic governance to mediate their interactions with other forms of land use, which is unlikely to happen unless authorities appreciate the technical sophistication and economic advantages of migratory systems. 4. Migratory production in East Darfur uses locally available resources which leaves livestock owners and government free to expend cash reserves on other kinds of inputs, investments or activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaemia is a major childhood health problem in developing countries. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to determine the prevalence of anaemia, and some of its determinants, in preschool children in a rural village in the Northern State of Sudan. All children aged 3-6 years attending the 4 village kindergartens on the day of the study were enrolled. Demographic and socioeconomic data were collected using a questionnaire completed by parents, and blood samples were taken for haemoglobin measurement. Out of 163 children, 131 had anaemia (haemoglobin level < 11 g/dL), a prevalence of 80.4%. This figure is comparable to data from other developing countries. The prevalence of anaemia was not significantly associated with any of the studied demographic and socioeconomic factors (sex, economic status of the family, mother's literacy or family size) or health of the child (history of pica or number of attacks of malaria in the last year). A campaign to tackle this serious health issue is urgently needed.

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of acute malnutrition in pre-school children in Karma Albald village, Northern Sudan., Design: Prospective observational study., Setting: Four kindergartens in Karma Albald village, Northern Sudan., Subjects: Pre-school children attending kindergartens in Karma Albald village (n = 163)., Results: Using the World Health Organization case definitions and weight-for-height growth chart, wasting was observed in 29 of 163 children (17.8%); nine children had severe wasting. Socio-economic data showed that 70 children (43%) were from large families (families with four or more children) and 40 were from 'poor' families; 21 fathers and 12 mothers had poor literacy. All of the risk factors associated with malnutrition that were studied (that is, economic status, family size, order of the child in the family, and other socio-economic indicators) did not reach statistical significance., Conclusions: The prevalence of malnutrition was high in this cohort. Effective interventions are needed to tackle this major child health problem.

Background: Quality of life (QOL) issues are of interest in cancer because effective methods of treatment and detection have led to an increase in the number of long-term survivors. The objectives of the study were: to assess the subjective QOL of stable Sudanese women cancer outpatients and their family caregivers, using the WHO 26-item QOL Instrument; compare with matched general population groups, as well as diabetic and psychiatric patient groups; examine patient-caregiver concordance in ratings; and assess the variables associated with their QOL, with a view to identifying factors that can enhance quality of care., Methods: Responses of oncology outpatients with breast cancer (117), cervical cancer (46) and ovarian cancer (18) (aged 44.6, SD 11.5) were compared with those of their family caregivers and matched general population groups. Data were analyzed by univariate and multivariate statistics., Results: The cancer groups had similar QOL domain scores, which were significantly lower than those of their caregivers, but higher than the control group as well as those of psychiatric and diabetic patients studied previously. Patients who were married, with higher education, better employment, and with longer duration of illness had higher QOL. Patients on radiotherapy and their caregivers had higher QOL scores. Correlations between patient's ratings and caregiver impression of patient's QOL were high. Caregiver impression was a significant predictor of patient's and caregiver's QOL. Other predictors for the patient were: currently feeling sick and duration of illness; for the caregiver: feeling sick, relationship to patient, and age., Conclusion: Cancer patients in stable condition and with psychosocial support can hope to enjoy good QOL with treatment. The findings constitute an evidence base for the country's cancer care program, to boost national health education about prognosis in cancer. Families living with women cancer patients are vulnerable and need support if the patient is recently diagnosed, less educated, single, not formally employed; and the caregiver is female, parent, younger, less educated, unemployed and feels sick. Clinicians need to invest in the education and support of family caregivers. The patient-caregiver dyad should be regarded as a unit for treatment in cancer care.

Investigation of the in vivo response of P. falciparum malaria parasites to chloroquine was conducted during 1993/94 in Al-Ain District of Abu Dhabi Emirate, UAE. Sixty seven expatriates who developed falciparum malaria on their return from Pakistan, Oman and Sudan were recruited for the WHO in vivo tests. Of the 67 patients, eight were classified as having RII and RIII responses, while 59 remained aparasitaemic at the end of the seven-day WHO standard test. On continuation into the 28-day WHO extended test, a further 34 patients exhibited RI resistance. Resistance of parasites to chloroquine was confirmed by measurement of plasma chloroquine using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. In all 67 patients, the level of chloroquine was well above the minimum therapeutic level. The outcome of the in vivo test in patients treated for the first time was significantly different from that in patients who were previously on chloroquine. Among patients treated for the first time, 36 out of 41 (88%) had a resistant response, whereas, among those previously on chloroquine only six out of 26 (23%) had a resistant response. The difference is probably due to the higher initial plasma level of chloroquine among patients who were previously on the drug. Curing more patients with higher plasma chloroquine implies that chloroquine shall continue to be useful, particularly if resistance is at the RI level. Appropriate higher therapeutic levels of chloroquine should be defined for such patients.

Severe lesions of the ligamentum nuchae are described for the first time in two cows in the Sudan. Post mortem and histopathological examination of the nodules reveals inflammatory process the causal agent of which is Onchocerca gutturosa.

A survey of ovine schistosomiasis was carried out in a Schistosoma bovis enzootic area in the central Sudan. Three hundred Desert sheep, representing different age groups, were screened for infection, using Pitchford's faecal egg counting technique. No infection was detected in animals under one year old, but from the age of 18 months onward, the prevalence increased progressively from around 20 per cent to 60 per cent in six-year-old sheep, and this was accompanied by an increase in infection intensity, as determined by faecal egg counts. These findings, which suggest that these sheep did not develop an effective resistance to schistosomiasis, contrasted with those previously recorded in cattle from the same locality, studied in the same year.

Suppression of egg production is the main parasitological manifestation of naturally acquired resistance to Schistosoma bovis in Sudanese cattle. In preliminary investigations on the mechanisms involved, 700-4,000 "suppressed" adult worms were surgically transplanted from six "resistant" donor cattle with very low fecal egg counts (0-8 eggs/g, epg) into six normal recipients. After transplantation, large numbers of eggs were excreted in the feces of the recipient cattle, beginning at between 5 and 16 days after operation, and reaching counts of 55-405 epg at between 6 and 20 days post transplantation. In the cattle with the highest egg counts, egg counts soon fell sharply from peak levels, whereas in cattle with lower peak counts, more steady counts were maintained. All the recipients were perfused at days 46-56, when between 0.1% and 78.5% of the transplanted worms were recovered. In the second experiment, 1,000-ml quantities of pooled sera from "resistant" donors were injected intraperitoneally into each of four normal recipient calves, while another four were injected with pooled sera from uninfected cattle. All the calves were challenged percutaneously the next day with 7,500 cercariae each, and the course of infection was followed by parasitological and clinical measurements until perfusion 18 weeks later. The results showed that the "immune" sera had a negligible effect on the numbers of worms which developed, and had no significant effect on the fecal egg counts or clinical parameters studied. There was, however, some evidence from the tissue egg counts of a reduction in the fecundity of the worms in calves injected with "immune" sera.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The gross and histopathological lesions of naturally-occurring bovine schistosomiasis in the Sudan are detailed. Out of 61 animals examined, 53 were found infected with Schistosoma bovis, showing lesions in their livers, intestinal tracts and other organs. Apart from granulomas, periportal inflammatory infiltration, fibrosis and pigmentation of Kupffer cells, livers of infected cattle revealed peculiar lesions in the form of "nodular sclerosis", medial hypertrophy of portal veins and lymphoid nodule and follicle formation around parasites. In the intestines, variable manifestations of catarrh, with eosinophilic infiltration, granulomatous reaction and vascular changes, were observed. Pancreatic schistosomiasis was common and some animals had lesions in their lungs and lymph nodes. Urogenital lesions, rectal and colonic polyps, congestive splenomegaly, gastro-oesophageal variaces and Symmer's clay-pipe stem fibrosis of the liver were not seen in cattle. The haematological and serum protein findings in infected animals were included. The findings were related to the lesions observed and the need for detailed study of functional disturbances in bovine schistosomiasis is indicated.

An investigation was made of the pathological, haematological and biochemical aspects of naturally-occurring bovine fascioliasis in the Sudan. 228 animals infected with Fasciola gigantica and 25 non-infected controls were used in the study. The infected cattle revealed emaciation, typical liver pathology, and, occasionally, lesions in the lung and the pancreas. Analysis of their sera also showed reduced albumin values, increased globulin concentrations and decrease albumin/globulin ratio, in addition to increased arginase activity. The serum iron concentration, on the other hand, was decreased, while the total iron binding capacity increased and the resultant iron saturation values reduced. Haematological findings in the infected animals included reduced erythrocyte counts, decreased haematocrit values, increased mean corpuscular volumes, eosinophilia and decreased neutrophil, lymphocyte and monocyte counts. Other parameters were similar in infected and control cattle.

Calves were immunized with Schistosoma bovis by a single experimental exposure to 10,000 normal cercariae. Some of these calves were perfused 14 weeks later, and a part of their worm loads was surgically transplanted into groups of normal recipient calves: "WPR" group calves received 500 pairs of worms; "MR" group calves received between 650 and 1,000 male worms alone. All three groups were subsequently challenged 10 weeks after surgery with 20,000 cercariae, as were a previously unexposed group of controls ("CC"). Mean post-challenge fecal egg counts in the animals immunized with cercariae ("PC" group) rose to a maximum of only 60 eggs per gram (e.p.g.), compared to 376 e.p.g. in the CC, and maximum fecal egg counts in the WPR and MR groups were also somewhat lower than in the CC, at 152 and 250 e.p.g., respectively. In spite of the much lower fecal egg counts in the PC than in the CC group, calculated adult "challenge" worm recoveries were only reduced by 11%, but PC group tissue egg densities derived from the challenge were 78-100% lower than in the CC. The WPR and MR groups had 43% and 37%, respectively, fewer worms than the CC, and mean tissue egg densities were lower by 39-63% and 63-76%, respectively, though in most cases there were no statistically significant differences from the CC.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

A 2-year epizootiological study was carried out on Schistosoma bovis in cattle in an enzootic area of the Sudan. The prevalence of infection, as judged by the Pitchford fecal egg counting technique, was very high, approaching 90% in 1.5-year-old animals. There was, however, a lower prevalence in older cattle, and this trend was also seen with the fecal egg counts. This suggests that the cattle gradually acquire resistance to reinfection, particularly since there seems to be little age-related variation in the amount of water contact. Monthly incidence rates, estimated from fecal examinations of initially uninfected "tracer" calves showed a marked seasonal pattern, being much higher in the hot summer months, and snail infection rates showed a similar seasonal pattern. In addition, both the monthly incidence measurements and the snail infection rates showed that transmission was much heavier in 1976 than in 1977. Epizootics such as those recorded previously in this area presumably arise from exceptionally intense transmission years.

Studies in the White Nile area of the Sudan have shown that Zebu cattle acquire a high degree of resistance to Schistosoma bovis as a result of repeated natural exposures without, however, being able to eliminate their populations of adult schistosomes, although these do show greatly suppressed fecundity. To test whether these adult worms are necessary for the maintenance of resistance we cured six "naturally resistant" cattle (TC group) with a double treatment of 25 mg/kg praziquantel and compared their response to a 70,000 cercariae challenge with groups of "naturally resistant" but untreated cattle (UC group) and with previously unexposed, challenged cattle (CC group). Challenge was carried out 7 weeks after the second dose of praziquantel. The results confirmed that untreated cattle are "naturally resistant" and also showed that resistance was not abrogated by cure of the naturally-acquired infections. Thus, fecal egg counts after challenge reached mean maxima of 2,432 eggs per gram (epg) in the CC, but only 5 epg and 28 epg in the TC and UC groups, respectively. Similarly, mean worm counts were 85% and 69% lower in the TC and UC groups, respectively, and mean tissue egg densities were reduced by 72-99%, and 56-80%. Histopathologically, the TC and UC groups were also far less affected than the CC. Effective praziquantel treatment does therefore not destroy naturally acquired resistance to S. bovis, and may benefit infected livestock even in the absence of transmission control. The situation in human schistosomiasis is less clear, but there are several epidemiological and experimental indications of a similar conclusion for S. mansoni.

A Sudanese isolate of Schistosoma bovis from experimentally infected sheep was found to be highly pathogenic to albino mice. Eggs were first found in the livers 42 days after exposure. The distribution of eggs in the liver and small and large intestines changed little during the course of infection. Results are compared with others using an Iranian isolate of S. bovis, which causes only a mild infection, and S. mattheei.

Twelve nine-month-old zebu calves were each experimentally infected with 10,000 Schistosoma bovis cercariae. Four were treated orally with 20 mg/kg praziquantel at weeks 9 and 14 after infection, and four were treated orally three times with metrifonate at week 11 (25 mg/kg) and again at week 14 (50 mg/kg). Praziquantel proved to be highly effective, reducing faecal egg counts near to zero; the mean live worm count in the treated calves at week 16 was only 32, compared to 2850 in the untreated group, a reduction of 98.9 per cent. In contrast, metrifonate treatment caused only a very short-lived, partial reduction in faecal egg counts, and no reduction in live worm counts.