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This article presents the results of a case involving the application of project-based learning carried out with students in the Mechanical Engineering degree program at the University of Girona. The project, entitled "Design and construction of a wooden bridge", was conducted at the Polytechnic School in the third-year Structures course. This project required students to address, consider and solve different problems related to the resistance of materials, structural calculations, material optimization and structural design. The project also included the building of the bridge based on the calculations made, thus enabling the students to verify the suitability of the theoretical calculations as compared to real results. Furthermore, a competition was held to reward those teams who obtained the best ratio between the failure load and the weight of the bridge. The main conclusion observed from the implementation of only two editions of this project is the acquisition of the different proposed competences (both specific and cross-curricular) by the students. Finally, it was interesting to note that after completing the activity, the students were observed to be more motivated by the course content.

This article presents the results of the geoarchaeological study of earthen building materials used in a Tartessic public building at Casas del Turuñuelo. The construction dates back to the fifth century BCE and is one of the monumental buildings of Tartessic culture, characterized by its complex architecture, prestige goods, and intentional destruction after a feast and animal sacrifice. We applied an integrated methodology combining macro and micro approaches to investigate earthen construction processes, such as techniques, labour organization, workers' specialization, and environmental exploitation. The sample mainly consists of mudbricks, but we also include other forms of earthen materials such as mud plasters, mud mortars, and geological soils for comparison. In total, 64 samples from different building parts were studied through X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, thin-section petrography, and CHN analyses. The results reveal that the workforce involved in the construction process used different resources and presented different skill levels, but was centrally planned and organized. This study reflects on the communities' knowledge of the environment, the logistic effort and technical skill employed in the building process, and the existence of strong political structures capable of managing the erection of the complex Tartessic buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rock-inhabiting fungi (RIF) are usually extremely tolerant or extremophilic, as they can survive on natural and artificial rocks despite being exposed to stressful conditions. RIF have serious negative effects on the appearance and cohesion of rocky substrates, causing the alteration and decomposition of building materials, but also on human and animal health, as they can act as opportunistic pathogens. Their identification is therefore of great importance, especially in urban areas. In the present study, culturing techniques for isolating fungi, and a polyphasic taxonomic approach to their identification, were used to assess the diversity of micromycetes that darken the surfaces of buildings in various villages and cities in Tarragona Province (Spain). Sixty-four species of RIF belonging to forty-one genera were identified, including a new genus (Coccodomyces) and the following six new fungal species: Coccodomyces pleiosporus, Exophiala caementiphila, Exophiala multiformis, Neocatenulostroma spinulosum, Neodevriesia longicatenispora, and Paradevriesia holothallica. Thus, we have established that building materials are ecological niches where a high biodiversity of RIF can develop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union (EU) is responsible for generating quantities ranging from 310 to almost 700 million tons of construction and demolition waste (CDW) per year. Consisting of over 70% inert material (concrete, ceramics, plaster, bricks, and rocks), CDW can be recycled for various uses, and studies on the concentration of the materials of interest are necessary to improve the management of this material and reduce waste. In CDW recycling plants in Spain, there is a significant presence of limestone from old houses (a common material used in civil construction before new construction materials and technologies emerged) that were demolished and mixed with CDW that can be recovered for use as aggregates in concretes with process density concentration processes such as water jigging. The jigging process is based on the difference in density between materials, allowing the concentration of the densest material at the bottom of the jig. Concrete, conventional construction bricks, and rocks from old houses were taken separately and then were crushed and mixed based on binary and ternary tests, and each test was performed in this study by applying the jigging separation method. The physical characterization tests of these materials was carried out to observe the jigging performance in the concentration of rocks as well as the aggregates present in concrete. Binary tests (with two different materials) and ternary tests (with three different materials) were carried out to analyze the concentration of particles with a density greater than 2.55 g/cm3. The efficiency of jigging in the concentration of these materials was proven, and products were generated with more than 70% recovery of this material, with a concentration comprised of more than 95% rocks and concrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research work is to study the effect of salt mist ageing on the physico-mechanical properties of two ignimbrites from the Canary Islands (Spain). Due to their insular nature and extensive coastlines, these regions are highly susceptible to atmospheric salt aerosols, which is a significant weathering agent for building materials. The ignimbrites analysed are marketed under the names "Azul Lomo Tomás de León" and "Marrón de Abades" and are widely used as building stones. Petrographic, mineralogical and chemical properties were obtained via polarisation microscopy, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence. The samples were subjected to 60 cycles of a salt mist environment, following relevant European standards. Scanning electron microscopy images of the specimens were analysed along with physical properties, including apparent density, open porosity, water absorption, colourimetry and ultrasound propagation velocity, initially and after every 20 cycles, allowing us to assess their evolution during the ageing test. Mechanical properties were evaluated using uniaxial compressive strength and flexural strength under concentrated load tests on two groups of specimens: one unaged and the other subjected to 60 ageing cycles. With the exception of apparent density, the other properties show a decrease between 5% and 30%. However, open porosity increases and is one of the properties most affected by the ageing test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study includes the assessment of all possible combinations of ready-mix concrete encompassed in a reference construction database of building materials for Valencia (Spain). All concrete components are considered in the calculation: cement, water, aggregates, and admixtures. The life cycle assessment methodology was used to calculate the environmental impacts of each material, including the modules A1-A3, i.e. production of raw materials, transport, and manufacturing, and impact categories in accordance with EN 15804:2012 + A2:2019. This study shows that cement is the concrete component with the greatest overall impact on the environment. Furthermore, the impact for the Global Warming Potential (stages A1-A3) can double depending on the type of cement; with CEM I and CEM II types having the highest impact. The regressions obtained for each impact category allow to predict the environmental impacts of every ready-mix concrete and also to analyze the relative importance of each concrete component in each impact category. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Iberian Iron Age, the transition to workshop-based pottery production involved the use of innovative tools (the potter's wheel and kiln) and dedicated workspace. This facilitated an intensification of production, with repercussions for consumption practices and the economy. Cross-craft comparison can contribute to understanding the transmission processes underpinning this transition, as well as its impact on local craft traditions. This paper discusses an archaeometric methodology to compare the technological procedures underpinning different clay crafts to reveal crossovers and divergences that are meaningful for understanding cross craft interaction and the spread of technological innovations. We use thin-section ceramic petrography, X-Ray Fluorescence, Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry, and X-Ray Diffraction to analyse the mineralogical and geochemical compositions and levels of standardisation in hand-made pottery, wheel-made ceramics, and ceramic building materials from the Late Iron Age oppidum of Monte Bernorio (Aguilar de Campoo, Palencia) and the kiln site of El Cerrito (Cella, Teruel). The results demonstrate that wheel-made pottery was produced according to a highly uniform clay preparation and clay selection procedure, which spanned the northern Iberian Plateau and largely existed in isolation from local pottery traditions. At Monte Bernorio, wheel-made pottery was made on-site from non-local clays, suggesting that suitable clays were brought to the site, perhaps by itinerant potters working on a seasonal basis. Technological traditions were thus largely polarised, demonstrating that knowledge, skills, and markets relating to workshop-produced pottery were enacted by a segment of society operating as part of a closed technological system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bamboo is a lignocellulosic material traditionally and increasingly appreciated as a structural material in construction within the context of a low-carbon circular bioeconomy. Evaluating changes in its basic mechanical properties when exposed to outdoor climatic conditions is of key importance. This paper describes bamboós behavior under compressive stresses in the direction of the culm, tensile and bending, when exposed to natural environmental conditions for two years, in comparison with control samples under stable conditions in a climatic chamber during the same period. Specifically, culms of the Guadua angustifolia Kunth species were exposed to the climatic conditions of the city of Granada (southern Spain). The results attest to a decrease of up to 9% in compressive strength, yet no influence in tensile or bending strength when the silica layer is placed on the compression face. Furthermore, the node enhances stiffness near the points of load application at bending, the node area undergoing lower stress, while the maximum stress and modulus of elasticity in a tensile state are reduced. The influence of nodes in compression is not relevant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction of protected housing in Spain during the period analysed (1939-1989) reached its maximum between 1950-1980 with the construction of almost three million homes per year. The analysis of the homes built for railroad workers from this housing stock is distinct for four main reasons: it is a housing stock with a representative number of homes in relation to the total of social housing built in Spain, which is still mostly in use and covers all the typologies used in the country and which is dispersed throughout it. Thus, for the present analysis, there is a sample that is adequately representative of the whole stock of social housing constructed in Spain, this sample enables a comparative global analysis that can be extrapolated to the remaining stock. The objective of this study is to analyse the energy efficiency of homes through the thermal analysis of the envelope, as well as to acknowledge the specific constructive limitations of these homes and if possible, their rehabilitation that guarantees compliance with the required standards regarding sustainability and energy efficiency set by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established in the 2030 Agenda. This is a crucial goal to achieve, as the Spanish building stock currently consumes 30% of the total energy consumed, in addition to the socioeconomic profile and the potential for energy poverty, there is a portion of social housing with a precarious construction lacking the heating facilities, which is required due to the weather, with a significant potential for savings and the incorporation of renewable energies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Roman villa of Noheda, located in the municipality of Villar de Domingo García (Cuenca), is one of the most important archaeological sites in Spain and one of the most important museum complexes in Europe. In recent years, several archaeological investigations have been developed (archaeometry of building materials, natural resources, ways and roads). Furthermore, various restoration and consolidation works have been carried out on structures, walls and floors. The archaeological management team requested a characterisation of the mortars found in the coatings of the walls and floors of the complex to identify differences in its production. After checking the rooms, the state of conservation of the elements and the significance of the materials used, several mortar samples were analysed by means of macroscopic techniques before applying a petrographic analysis. The results showed an interesting variety in the distribution of aggregates, a complex microstratigraphy and a range of grain sizes in the mortars from different rooms. Magnesium, silica and aluminium from limestone were found. Crushed and powdered limestone was used as an aggregate with irregular distribution. Calcite nodules were observed as evidence that the mortar had been poorly mixed in preparation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Legionella pneumophila can cause a type of pneumonia called Legionnaires' disease. The bacterium is responsible for most cases of the disease and can multiply in man-made water systems, such as irrigation systems. The study analyzed the potential development of Legionella pneumophila in irrigation system materials of Spanish hotels. Sprinkler irrigation systems were analysed in hotel golf courses and compared with the Spanish regulation standards in order to establish sanitation criteria for the prevention and control of legionellosis. An analytical study and principal component methods were employed in the context of materials, type of water and legislative compliance. Lead, polybutylene and wastewater treatment plant had great relevance. There was a strong association between wastewater treatment plant-copper and well water-polyvinyl chloride. Polybutylene, iron, polyethylene, stainless steel and lead showed a great magnitude in the contribution biplot, while lead facilities had a very low level of compliance in the correspondence analysis. Materials and legislative compliance were not statistically significantly associated (p<0.05). Considering the material and type of water, deficiencies were identified in the hygienicpreventive maintenance of the facilities. Attending the sanitary control criteria, ease of colonization and results obtained, it's suggested that there is a relationship between the different materials and the risk of bacterial development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A ceramic material from over 800 years ago has been studied. Ceramic manufacturing processes are classified among inorganic chemical technologies. The problems of ensuring the durability of buildings and reducing the cost of repairs are extremely relevant and due to the amount of industrial, residential, and individual construction. The elemental chemical composition of the material shows an increased calcium content relative to modern construction materials (Ca = 5.90%), which promotes the formation of anorthite (increasing the strength of products); the increased carbon content (C = 14.79) indicates the introduction of fuel into the clay brick. An increased content of fuel in the clay brick promotes uniform sintering in the ceramic sample. An increased iron content (Fe = 2.98) and alkali oxides (R2O = Na2O + K2O = 2.75) facilitates the formation of a vitreous phase at 950°C. Elemental analysis is confirmed by XRD data: the increased calcium content promotes the formation of anorthite. The presence of anorthite, hematite, vitreous phase, and diopside in the studied sample enhances the technical properties of ceramic materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building circularly means thinking and designing for the future, so that, in addition to sustainability in construction, use and possible reuse, at the end of the building's useful life, all the elements can be usable. Since Pearce and Turner (1995) put forward their ideas on the circular economy, this approach has gained prominence in other disciplines, such as architecture. (McDonough y Braungart, 2005). However, until very recent times architecture has been "linear" if we understand this as the opposite of the aim of reduce-reuserecycle: the initial purpose was disconnected from the final one. In the case of social housing, there are still no examples built according to the principles of circular architecture, nor are there any studies that verify whether it is possible to apply it to social housing built in previous decades. Thus, to have elements of analysis and comparison, we will approach the way of building in Spain in the 20th century focusing on the case of railway social housing, which had an abundant production (around 20,000 dwellings) in the period 1939-1989, within the framework of the existing housing legislation at that time in which there was no purpose of any of the principles encompassed within the concept of circular architecture, as the context and needs were different. However, these are dwellings that are still in use and the question of this study is whether, at least in terms of energy savings, it is possible to optimise the lifespan of these dwellings without compromising the current way of life and the associated comfort demands. The article is based on the analysis of the thermal envelope carried out based on the projects available, as well as the study and application of the regulations on thermal insulation in the period under study, which specifically did not exist until the 1979 basic standard on thermal conditions (NBE-CT-79). The aim is to simulate, after the study carried out and after the recent update of the basic document on energy saving, (CTE DB-HE 2019) what renovation actions are necessary in these dwellings to ensure compliance with the new and rigorous standards set with the aim of reconciling these dwellings, which are still in use and were built under criteria of minimum cost, with the lowest energy consumption and therefore with greater energy efficiency and environmental sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Novel building materials were manufactured and analyzed for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K using an HPGe gamma-ray spectrometer. The results show that the highest value of 40K was 4530 Bq per kg which was measured in a sample containing fly ashes from olive stones. The highest values of 226Ra and 232Th activities were 181 and 185 Bq per kg, which were measured in a sample with fly ashes from the co-combustion of coal and coke, respectively. On the other hand, the lowest values of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th activities were obtained for samples incorporating mussel shells. The radiological health hazard parameters, such as radium equivalent activity (Raeq), activity concentration index (I), absorbed and effective dose rates, associated with these radionuclides were evaluated. These values are within the EU recommended limits in building materials, except for samples of concrete containing fly ashes from olive stones, coal and coke. This study has contributed to the inclusion of industrial wastes that have not been collected previously in the Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) databases on radioactivity of building materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1985 many mediaeval fortifications were classified as cultural heritage assets by the Spanish Historic Heritage Act, which imposed an obligation to preserve them from decay. Unfortunately, this legal mandate is often difficult to fulfil in practice due to insufficient knowledge of the building materials and techniques used in these constructions, which makes it impossible to plan proper restoration work. Another problem is that these fortifications are often difficult to access, which is one of the reasons why little research has been done on them. Given that the degree of decay suffered by a building material is closely related to the environmental conditions and the natural risks to which it is exposed, as well as to the intrinsic features of the material itself, the characterization of the building materials used in rammed-earth constructions is considered a crucial aspect to implement compatible protective actions. With this in mind, we present the study of the conservation state of one of the 250 fortifications found in south-eastern Spain: the Velez castle, in the town of Mula (Murcia). The characterization of four representative samples of rammed-earth and mortars using X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy is also presented here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the study of the main phenomena of material weathering and structural damage that affect traditional architecture built in adobe, analysing the damage found in 553 case studies, representative of different technical varieties of adobe construction in Spain. The analysis methodology proposed in this text made it possible to quantify and identify the risks of damage appearing, establishing its impact and identifying its main mechanisms and causes. At the same time, the behaviour of adobe construction systems was further studied, observing how specific modifications in technique can promote or hinder deterioration and establishing the probable causes of the different responses to these phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the seismic vulnerability of various rammed earth medieval fortifications situated in Southeastern Spain, where seismic events with intensity over VII have taken place in the last millennium, using the vulnerability index method. This method begins with the choice of a certain initial value, V0, of the vulnerability index, which is obtained from a preset range between maximum, V 0 max , and minimum, V 0 min , values, which are likely for vulnerability indices, according to the constructive material characteristics and based on expert judgments. Rammed earth structures have not yet been studied using the vulnerability index method, despite the fact that they are quite common medieval structures in Spain and other countries in the Mediterranean region, many of which are also heritage sites, and hence are legally protected. Intervention priorities on them have been determined from the results in this paper with the aim of reducing their seismic vulnerability. For the different rammed earth techniques, a proposed primary value Vp = 0.76 together with some other material modifiers (construction typology and quality, current material porosity and density, and superficial deterioration) make the range of values V0 vary between 0.58 and 1.02. Moreover, structural behavior modifiers (MK) have been adapted to the various defensive rammed earth structural typologies used for these fortifications allowing us to obtain individualized vulnerability index values. Three rammed earth fortifications damaged by historical earthquakes and located in SE Spain have been used to validate the method, in which values of V0med range between 35.2 and 89.1% and upwards and the vulnerability index IVmed may vary between 27.9 and 70.7% and upwards as compared to those used by other authors for castles. Besides, the proposed method has been used by carefully choosing six rammed earth fortifications (two towers, two walls and two castles) in SE Spain which are representative of different construction systems, structural typologies and topographies. Furthermore, the mean damage grade and the probability of its occurrence is determined for each fortification based on PGA data and site effects, taking into account a probabilistic seismic scenario for a 975 year return period, in accordance with existing legislation. In the end, direct relations are established between the seismic vulnerability and the types of material and the typology of the fortifications. We have carried out a sensibility analysis in order to learn about the influence of the constructive technique, the material condition and the structural typology on the damage grade value. The results show that lime-crusted rammed earth technique and tower typologies are the most vulnerable structures while topography is somehow less important. The results suggest that for half of the structures analyzed for the given scenario the probabilities are above 80% for damage grade 4 and 5 (EMS-98). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The monumental heritage of European historic centres is characterised by special building types that have drawn, more than others, on the vernacular language of the local traditional architecture. The traditional bell towers, even if built by a specific (but not always known) designer, often have some building elements transliterated from the construction tradition of poor and rural buildings. This language can be found in many examples from different historical periods and in faraway areas, such as Italy and Spain. The external monumentality may not correspond to a complex spatial articulation inside the towers. Instead, it is usual to find belfries in which the vertical connections and any horizontal structures are solved by wooden stairs and floors to reach the bell cell. The used materials and building techniques reveal the design simplicity but also the evidence of a lost "know-how". Due to the nature of the materials, possible damages and lack of maintenance, many of these structures have undergone restoration or transformation works, also whit their replacement for the benefit of most modern construction systems. The research aims to underline the central importance of preventive knowledge of these traditional structures and illustrate some significant cases in Eastern Sicily, a high seismic risk area. These case studies are emblematic for the evidence of several original structures or the extreme effects of the 20th-century interventions. These last works have often compromised the historical and documentary trait of the wooden structures, introducing new vulnerabilities due to the excessive stiffening of the masonry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The works that Josep María Fargas and Enric Tous built in the period between 1953 and 1964 represented a particular way of understanding modern architecture in Spain. The scarcity of building materials available at the time encouraged the architects to delve in a process of intense search for new constructive solutions, rigorously assessing not only technical issues, but also the way they were visually displayed. The predominant visual features in Fargas and Tous’ first works have been analyzed through a digital three-dimensional reconstruction process of a series of four of the most representative works in the aforementioned period. The method allows for a visual intellection that has been embodied in a sequence of texts and images. By doing this, the text aims to value a body of work that remains current in many of its architectural principles, despite its physical absence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The natural radioactivity in coal fly ash and natural pozzolan Portland cement samples produced in Spain was measured by gamma spectrometry. Activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K ranged from 15.7 to 88.3 Bq kg−1, from 12.8 to 81.0 Bq kg−1 and from 37.0 to 678.0 Bq kg−1, respectively. The radiological hazards samples owing to the mentioned natural radioactivity were inferred from determinations of the activity concentration index, I, absorbed dose rate, Dext, and annual effective dose, Ep, which falls within 0.20 mSv to 0.87 mSv (coal-cement) and 0.18 mSv to 0.50 mSv (pozzolan-cement) (≤ 1 mSv, threshold criterion). Therefore, these cements are proper to be used for building purposes as result of their radiological assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There have been numerous studies relating house construction materials with the indoor gamma dose rate mainly coming from natural radionuclide activities. The relationship between the outdoor gamma dose rate and the soil's naturally occurring radionuclide content is well documented. Few studies, however, have investigated the historical evolution of indoor gamma dose levels due to the principal materials used in house construction in geographical areas where outdoor natural radiation levels are significant. The present work was carried out in an area of Spain with high outdoor gamma dose levels (on average, 0.267 µSv h−1) due to the natural radioactive characteristics of its soils, considering a great variety of standalone houses built from the beginning of the 18th century until today with different styles, architectural techniques, and materials in their construction. The measured ambient dose equivalent rates in thgese houses decreased the more recent the date of their construction was. In conclusion, today's architectural style for housing, which uses materials of practically universal origin, not only attenuates part of the irradiation due to the composition of a location's soils but also contributes less to the indoor gamma dose rate due to the relatively low naturally occurring radionuclide concentration of modern building materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Spain, gypsum and its many typologies play an important role as a construction material in Spanish architectural heritage. Its historical use is mainly a direct consequence of the abundance of gypsum deposits and a constructive tradition which began in ancient times. In addition to being a sign of constructive identity, gypsum is a clear example of the strong link between traditional architecture and the natural resources of the territory. The aim of this article is after to identify gypsum deposits and gypsum architectural heritage found in different parts of Spain and to explain the different gypsum typologies—other than powdered gypsum—used. Finally, the most unique construction techniques are described, differentiating between structural elements, partitions, and enclosures, as well as architectural elements and surface finishes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study conducted a comparison between biocide treatments based on nanoparticles of silver, copper, ZnO, TiO2 and silver/ TiO2 nanocomposites to analyse their capability to inhibit microalgal fouling on stone buildings. Biofouling is one of the main alterations on stone façades, causes degradation of their constituent materials and interferes with their aesthetic values. The proposed treatments were tested on a limestone from the historic quarry of Estepa (Spain), widely used as construction material in the South of Spain. The applicability of the treatments was evaluated by colorimetry. The biocidal effectiveness of the nanoparticles was studied on stone surfaces by multispectral imaging, digital image analysis and optical coherence tomography. This is a low-cost and efficient protocol to validate biocidal treatments for limestone monuments, and our results demonstrate the potential of silver and ZnO nanoparticles as a protective treatment for stone façades. The results have implications for practitioners working on historic buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advanced microscopy analyses are capable of revealing particles that are existent in the Alhambra, Spain, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, at minimal levels owing to the detailed directing on ultra-fine (UFPs) and nano-particles (NPs) of importance. This applied technique is one of the most used to natural samples. Between the diverse archaeological places in the planet, Alhambra is one of the most important representations of Hispano-Islamic architecture and art significant Muslim virtuosity in its conclusive European periods, thus helping to offer scientific material about the still little studied Islamic art. In this study, advanced microscopy analyses—has been applied to understand minor portions of UFPs and NPs of pollutants in external walls exposed to weathering. Several materials identified by X-Ray Diffraction can be detected using HR-TEM/FE-SEM and vice versa. The occurrence of anglesite, gypsum, hematite containing PHEs, and several organic compounds associated with modifications due to moisture and pollution was also demonstrated. Image 1 • Advanced system allows particles and geochemical analysis exclusive of sampling. • First wide work regarding the nanoparticles of ornamental structures pollutions. • Multianalytical approach of walls in an UNESCO World Heritage Site of Granada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salt crystallization is one of the major problems currently faced by the field of architecture and construction. Its effects are devastating to the extent that they may even lead to loss of material. Although many innovative and resistant materials have been developed in the last years, in most of the constructions, salt crystallization is a persistent problem. Salts crystallizations are formed by the dissolution and subsequent precipitation of the soluble salts present in the material itself or due to the formation of new ones because of the reaction between original components of the building materials with salts coming from infiltration waters or with acid aerosols present in the atmosphere. Among others, some of the most common salts that can crystallize in the building materials are nitrates and sulfates. Both of them are soluble compounds, which can mobilize throughout the material easily, reprecipitate, and generate volume changes responsible for fissures, fractures, and even the loss of building material. In this work, a specific study of salts crystallizations in a recent construction erected in 2013 in Amorebieta (Basque Country, North of Spain) using a different kind of materials has been studied. The materials affected by salts are joint mortars, which in a first step were characterized by X‐ray diffraction and Raman microscopy to determine the mineralogical composition. In a second step, a soluble salts tests by ion chromatography was applied to approach quantitatively the impact of the salts. Finally, in a third step, the reactions that give rise to the decay products (thenardite, nitrocalcite, and/or epsomite mainly) were proposed and confirmed through a thermodynamic modelling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Designing a Zero Energy Building (ZEB) requires an optimal choice of the materials of a building envelope. Different material properties and window areas could be selected to generate a set of possibilities of the design of a building, being the demand defined by its thermal characteristics. The energy demand of a building could be produced with renewable systems such as photovoltaic. Moreover, the HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems could be selected considering the system cost. The present methodology focuses on finding a balance between investment and low energy consumption for a building, based on an integrated optimization method. Such methodology applies a Tabu search algorithm and a simplified model to select the passive design. Afterwards, active elements of the design, as photovoltaic systems, are selected. Therefore, the methodology faces the problem of estimating the annual energy demand and the life cycle cost. The goal is the design of a building with a large amount of energy generated by renewable energy, to have a ZEB, and in the worst case, a nearly Zero Energy Building (nZEB). This methodology reduces investment, reduces the energy demand and selects the best construction materials, renewable energy, and air conditioning system. The present paper analyzes a set of case studies considering different climatic zones in Spain. The results conclude that the methodology could help builders in the design stage, to find a new design that allows a ZEB with the optimal life cycle cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores potential contributions of regional material flow accounting to the characterization of environmental pressures. With this aim, patterns of material extraction, trade, consumption, and productivity for the Spanish regions were studied within the 1996-2010 period. The main methodological variation as compared to whole-country based approaches is the inclusion of interregional trade, which can be separately assessed from the international exchanges. Each region was additionally profiled regarding its commercial exchanges with the rest of the regions and the rest of the world and the related environmental pressures. Given its magnitude, interregional trade is a significant source of environmental pressure. Most of the exchanges occur across regions and different extractive and trading patterns also arise at this scale. These differences are particularly great for construction minerals, which in Spain represent the largest share of extracted and consumed materials but do not cover long distances, so their impact is visible mainly at the regional level. During the housing bubble, economic growth did not improve material productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Facilitating the decision-making concerning the refurbishment upgrading measures. [•] A great assistance to the technicians involved in the refurbishment processes. [•] The facade types classification allow the result to be more rigorous and detailed. [•] The Spanish building stock contains the potential to be refurbishment. [•] Checking compliance with regulations is a refurbishment strategy selection support. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A quantitative assessment of the embodied environmental impacts of infrastructures can provide initial guidance to industry practitioners and engineers at the outset of the construction projects. This study presents the applicability of the Environmentally Extended Input-Output Analysis as a pre-construction evaluation tool for quantifying the embodied environmental impacts of a small diversion dam in Spain. Seven impact categories are assessed from a production-based and consumption-based perspective identifying the main sectors and regions contributing to the environmental impacts. From the consumption-based perspective, Spain is the only contributor to the environmental impacts, and from the production-based perspective, Spain is the main polluting country in all the impact categories contributing on average 68.9%. The use of high quantities of construction material leads to the sectors of steel and cement to significantly increase the environmental impacts. From the production-based perspective, steel and cement contribute on average 29.5% and 17.2%, respectively. From the consumption-based perspective, both sectors account for 74% of the overall environmental impacts. As observed in this case study, the application of the EEIOA model enables engineers and designers to focus during the early design stages on decisions that achieve high embodied impact reductions, such as prioritizing recycled materials for the construction of this infrastructure and, when possible, use materials from a less polluting origin. [Display omitted] • A quantitative environmental impact assessment is presented applying the EEIOA model. • The analysis of the embodied impacts of the construction project of a small diversion dam is carried out as case study. • Steel and cement contribute 74% (consumer approach) and 20% (producer approach). • Spain is the main polluting country in all the impact categories, contributing on average 68.9% from the producer approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Porous sedimentary stones are frequently used in the construction of many different kinds of buildings. In order to assess the quality of each stone as a building material, it is important to analyse its particular petrographic characteristics and physical properties, as these affect its behaviour when exposed to agents of decay. We selected six stone types with different petrophysical characteristics that are commonly used as construction materials in Spain. Two limestones with high porosity and notable textural differences performed worst. The bioclastic limestone from Santa Pudia showed poor mechanical behaviour, while the micritic limestone from Huesca had the worst response to water flow. Two sandstones performed better. They had medium porosity, a similar texture and certain differences in composition. The calcareous sandstone from Uncastillo performed worse in terms of hydric and mechanical behaviour and consequently is less durable than the siliciclastic sandstone from Villaviciosa. The highest quality stones, in terms of their hydric behaviour and mechanical properties are the crystalline dolostone from Boñar and the travertine from Albox, both of which have relatively low porosity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This work proposes an environmental analysis based on the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. LCA was applied to determine if energy savings are large enough to balance the environmental impact caused during phase change material (PCM) manufacture and its installation on tiles. Inputs and outputs of each management stage have been defined and the inventory emissions were calculated by SIMAPRO v 7.3.2. Emissions were classified into several impact categories; climate change, human toxicity, acidification, ozone depletion, particulate matter formation and eutrophication. Three commercial PCMs, evaluated using five different Spanish weather climates, were studied to explore a wide range of conditions. The main results conclude that the use of PCM can reduce the overall energy consumption and the environmental impacts. This reduction is strongly influenced by the climate conditions and the PCM introduced. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This research studies the durability against rain of the most industrialized construction material based on unbaked earth: compressed earth blocks (CEBs). The test procedures will be those ones proposed in the international normative (44 normative documents studied), analyzing the usefulness of these tests. The lack of unified criteria in the tests produces differences in the results obtained depending on the method used. Spanish stabilized CEB are fit for both interior faces and exterior walls, while non-stabilized CEB are just adequate to be used in exterior walls by applying a protection. This analysis could be a reference in the writing of future normative documents for all the world. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary This study discusses the validity and limits of modern criteria for the identification of a specific room-type, the cubiculum, in the material remains of the Roman house. The starting point is the cubiculum of the late-antique Villa of Maternus at Carranque, in Spain. Here, in the mosaic panel of the threshold, is an inscription which informs the reader that the room about to be entered is the cubiculum of Maternus. The explicit definition of this domestic space offers the rare opportunity to analyse a specific room-type on secure grounds and to verify what types of layouts were used for the arrangement of the cubiculum in the late-antique domestic buildings of Hispania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper presents the potential manufacture, and the engineering properties, of producing an economical, ecological and sustainable building material using a Spanish clay soil. Cylindrical clay soil test specimens incorporating three types of commercials stabilizer additives i) Portland cement (PC), ii) Natural Hydraulic Lime (NHL-5) and iii) Hydrated Lime (CL-90-S) were used, on similar mix compositions for brick production. The investigations were carried out using a clay soil supplied by a rural bricks manufacturer. The laboratory results demonstrated that compaction effort, compressive strength, moisture content, rate of water absorption, density and durability (repeated 48-hours of freezing/thawing cycles) were all within acceptable engineering standards typical for clay masonry bricks. This paper has demonstrated that with the mix formulations tested, unfired masonry bricks can be manufactured at the appropriate optimal compaction and optimum additive content depending on the desired engineering properties and any other desirable brick characteristics. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been conducted for seven experimental cubicles located in Puigverd de Lleida (Spain). The objective of this experimental set-up is to test different constructive solutions in order to point out the most sustainable solution with lower energy demand during the operational phase. Therefore, different building, insulation and Phase Change Materials (PCMs) have been tested under controlled temperature conditions to examine the thermal performance of the whole system. Although some of these materials are able to reduce the energy demand and consequently the environmental impact during the operational phase, they still have high embodied energy that can cause high environmental impact during the manufacturing phase. Therefore the LCA study in this paper focuses on assessing the impact of the embodied energy needed during the manufacturing and disposal phase by highlighting and comparing the effect of using different building materials, insulating materials, and phase change materials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents the most outstanding experiences regarding the use of fibres as the main reinforcement in precast segmental linings in the metropolitan area of Barcelona. It is known that the addition of structural fibres improves, on the one hand, the mechanical behaviour of the structure during its construction, especially in cases such as the thrust of the jacks, and on the other hand it leads to a reduction of the global costs by reducing the conventional passive reinforcement. The aim of this paper consists in presenting three real experiences that are representative of the application of FRC in urban tunnels and a design methodology to take into account the structural contribution of the fibres. Two particular cases of the application of this design method are presented. In the first case, the use of 25kg/m3 of fibres has led to a reduction of 70% of the conventional reinforcement initially proposed in the project. In the second one, which was planned to employ fibres but without considering its structural contribution, the parametric study reflected the possibility of reducing up to a 38% of the rebars adding 25kg/m3 of steel fibres in the concrete mixture. In light of good results, construction companies in Spain have become aware of the advantages of using fibres in these structures and have carried out experimental stretches. This attitude has also been influenced by the approval of the new Spanish Code, which includes the FRC as a construction material with design purposes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

BACKGROUND: Dozens of studies link acute exposure to particulate matter (PM) air pollution with premature mortality and morbidity, but questions remain about which species and sources in the vast PM mixture are responsible for the observed health effects. Although a few studies exist on the effects of species and sources in U.S. cities, European cities.which have a higher proportion of diesel engines and denser urban populations.have not been well characterized. Information on the effects of specific sources could aid in targeting pollution control and in articulating the biological mechanisms of PM. OBJECTIVES: Our study examined the effects of various PM sources on daily mortality for 2003 through 2007 in Barcelona, a densely populated city in the northeast corner of Spain. METHODS: Source apportionment for PM ≤2.5 μm and ≤10 m in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5 and PM10) using positive matrix factorization identified eight different factors. Case-crossover regression analysis was used to estimate the effects of each factor. RESULTS: Several sources of PM2.5, including vehicle exhaust, fuel oil combustion, secondary nitrate/organics, minerals, secondary sulfate/organics, and road dust, had statistically significant associations (p <.0.05) with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Also, in some cases relative risks for a respective interquartile range increase in concentration were higher for specific sources than for total PM2.5 mass. CONCLUSIONS: These results along with those from our multisource models suggest that traffic, sulfate from shipping and long-range transport, and construction dust are important contributors to the adverse health effects linked to PM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Economic History Research / Investigaciones de Historia Económica is the property of Asociacion Espanola de Historia Economica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

El Paular Monastery (eleventh century) is one of the most important Carthusian monasteries in Spain and is highly affected by crystallisation of Mg-sulphates, together with chlorides and nitrates. Urgent remediation of the decay process is needed to guarantee the stability of the building materials from the cloister and to make their hallways suitable for the exhibition of an important collection of seventeenth century paintings. This paper aims to characterise the building materials, salts and their interaction to suggest preservation strategies to minimise the impact of salts both in the short and the long term. These strategies include architectural solutions (such as a ventilation system to avoid increasing dampness and hence the dissolution, mobilisation and crystallisation of salts), petrophysical-based solutions (i.e. exploiting the porosity differences between building materials and poultices to maximise salt reduction) and strategies based on the physicochemical behaviour of salts and relative humidity transfer through the stone (to determine the most suitable environmental conditions to prevent crystallisation of the most harmful salt species). This research represents both a practical and experimental exercise that is useful for conservation scientists and restorers involved in the field of preservation of monuments, and for environmental control to avoid salt crystallisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Mud is one of humankind’s oldest construction materials. The paper presents a technical study of straw-stabilized adobe, prepared in the traditional manner using wooden frames and compacting the mixture manually. The mud is selected from a specific area in the province of León (Spain) where adobes had been employed traditionally from long years ago using two different proportions of straw: 25% and 33% of total volume. The laboratory tests have followed the standard EN protocols. The different tests developed were of two types: for the natural soil granulometric analysis, relative density and Atterberg limits were made; for the adobes the following were done: shrinkage during drying, density, compressive and flexural strength. Results show an average compressive strength of 3.8N/mm2 and an average flexural strength of 0.68N/mm2, so it can be stated that traditional adobes can be used as an adequate construction material. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Life Cycle Assessment methodology has been applied to a typical block of flats located in Barcelona, Spain to evaluate environmental impacts during the construction phase. The aim of this paper is to develop and apply several criteria for the building sector that help decision making at the design and construction stages, thereby allowing the selection of sustainable building materials, reducing the environmental impact of the materials used, minimizing the amount of waste generated, and increasing the percentage of this waste that is recycled. From a life cycle perspective during the construction phase, results showed that regarding to environmental impact of global warming potential, there was a total emission of 1.19E+01kgCO2 equiv.m−2 y−1 (referred to m2 of horizontal constructed area) of which about 85% was during the fabrication, while the rest was due to the energy consumed (8%), transport (6%) and waste management (1%). When analysing the whole building, the total waste obtained in the construction phase was 4.56E+01kgm−2 of which rest of materials account for 84% (internal and external walls 30%, architectural finishing 23% and foundations and basement 19%) and packaging waste represents 16% (roofing 31%, structural frame 22%, architectural finishing 15% and internal and external walls 10% of the total waste). Finally, in this paper we compare the different combinations of real construction scenarios for external and internal walls while taking into account the environmental and economic aspects and also three different systems of waste management: landfill, incineration and recycling have been evaluated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The main purpose of a residential building is to provide a comfortable environment for human activities. Nowadays this objective is the responsible for the consumption of more than 40% of total energy demand in European Union. The construction sector in Spain has been in rapid growth in the last decades, yet there exists many abandoned buildings in rural areas. In this article we try to analyze the environmental advantages of reuse abandoned rural buildings. Due to their thick exterior walls of high thermal inertia, the indoor environment inside them can be comfortable with less energy consumption than new buildings. Here we show the monitoring results of three different houses, two traditional and one modern building, constructed of different building materials. The aim of this work is to analyze and compare the thermal behaviour of existing constructive solutions in a Spanish district, not to improve them. The field test results show better indoor conditions inside the traditional houses. In summer, thermal comfort is achieved with no energy supply inside traditional houses but not inside the modern one. In winter, the indoor environment is more stable inside the traditional houses, however none of them were able to provide thermal comfort naturally. In the case studied, the only inhabitant of a small village lives in a prefabricated wooden house, and it is demonstrated that the indoor conditions of traditional houses in the same location are of higher quality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Copyright of Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina is the property of Museu de Prehistoria de Valencia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Gypsum-rich coatings found on buildings constructed with granitic rock ashlars have been studied, from both an urban and a rural area of the NW of Spain. Previous works have attributed gypsum to rock weathering by atmospheric pollution. Mineralogical, chemical, and physical data of coatings have allowed us to distinguish six different types of coatings formed in several ways. In most cases, they are originated by the deterioration calcium-rich plaster building materials. Sulfation of Ca-rich coatings, in situ gypsum dissolution and precipitation, and deposition of air pollution particles are the most important agents related to genesis of coatings. In fact, remains of plasters practically intact were found in some studied buildings. Also, data from coatings and rock ashlars suggest that gypsum-rich coatings are not formed by environment–rock interaction. Coatings located on different parts and façades of the buildings and submitted to different environmental conditions decay in a different way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Life cycle management (LCM) can be applied to the whole construction process, thus making it possible to improve sustainability indicators and also minimize the environmental loads of the full building life cycle. To illustrate this, a case study has been carried out based on the application of the LCM approach to a typical Spanish Mediterranean house located in Barcelona with a total area of 160m2 and a projected 50-year life span, which has been modeled according to the Spanish building technical code (CTE). The aim of this research is to use sustainability indicators in the pre-construction and operation (use and maintenance) phases and also to promote and support the adoption of the LCM within the construction industry. This paper concludes that regarding the significant environmental issue of climate change, there was a total emission of 2.34E03kg CO2-Eq/m2 per 50 years, of which about 90.5% was during the operation phase (use 88.9% and maintenance 1.7%) and the pre-construction phase account for a total of 9.5%. In terms of this dwelling''s environmental loads, the operation phase is the most critical because of the high environmental loads from energy consumption for heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC), lighting, electrical appliances and cooking. Additionally, the findings of this study state that the appropriate combination of building materials, improvement in behaviors and patterns of cultural consumption, and the application of government codes would enhance decision-making in the construction industry. Therefore, there is no doubt that applying LCM to the full building life cycle is very important for reducing environmental loads and thereby improving sustainability indicators. Finally, this research will help develop guidelines based on LCM for the construction industry to assist stakeholders in improving customer patterns during the dwelling life cycle. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]