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The parvorder Rhynchopthirina contains three currently recognised species of lice that parasitize elephants (both African savanna elephant Loxodonta africana and Asian elephant Elephas maximus), desert warthogs (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and Red River hogs (Potamochoerus porcus), respectively. The Asian elephant lice and the African savanna elephant lice are currently treated as the same species, Haematomyzus elephantis (Piaget, 1869), based on morphology despite the fact that their hosts diverged 8.4 million years ago. In the current study, we sequenced 23 mitochondrial (mt) genes of African savanna elephant lice collected in South Africa and analysed the sequence divergence between African savanna elephant lice and previously sequenced Asian elephant lice. Sequence comparisons revealed >23% divergence for the 23 mt genes as a whole and ~17% divergence for cox1 gene between African savanna and Asian elephant lice, which were far higher than the divergence expected within a species. Furthermore, the mt gene sequence divergences between these lice are 3.76–4.6 times higher than that between their hosts, the African savanna and Asian elephants, which are expected for the co‐divergence and co‐evolution between lice and their elephant hosts. We conclude that (1) H. elephantis (Piaget, 1869) contains cryptic species and (2) African savanna and Asian elephant lice are different species genetically that may have co‐diverged and co‐evolved with their hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From 1993 to 1994, 64 free-ranging elephants (Loxodonta africana) succumbed to encephalomyocarditis in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, of which 83% were adult bulls. Mastomys rodents were implicated as the reservoir host of the Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) based on serology and RT-PCR. However, in the absence of sequence-confirmation of both the virus and the rodent host, definitive links between the elephant outbreak strains and rodent reservoir could not be established. In this study, we generate the first reference genome sequences for three historical EMCVs isolated from two Mastomys rodents and one Mastomys-associated mite, Laelaps muricola, in Gauteng Province, South Africa, in 1961. In addition, near-complete genome sequences were generated for two elephant outbreak virus strains, for which data were previously limited to the P1 and 3D genome regions. The consensus sequence of each virus was determined using a PCR-Sanger sequencing approach. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the three near-identical (99.95–99.97%) Mastomys-associated viruses to be sister to the two near-identical (99.85%) elephant outbreak strains, differing from each other at 6.4% of sites across the ~7400-nucleotide region characterised. This study demonstrates a link between Mastomys-associated viruses and the historical elephant outbreak strains and implicates Mastomys as reservoirs of EMCV in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global challenges of biodiversity loss and persistent poverty and inequality, which interact and shape each other at the local scale, require new strategies to improve human well-being and conserve biodiversity. In South Africa, inclusive and transformative conservation approaches are gaining support, which is of particular importance given the challenging history of conservation during the colonial and apartheid eras. The Dinokeng Game Reserve was created to conserve biodiversity and combat poverty in adjacent communities. However, human–elephant conflict and community development challenges have led to unproductive conservation trade-offs. We developed a Theory of Change for Living in Harmony that can help policymakers, conservation organisations and local communities to find better solutions. To develop the Theory of Change, we assessed the visions and perspectives towards (elephant) conservation and socio-economic development among both people living inside (owners/direct beneficiaries) and outside (community/indirect beneficiaries) the reserve. The study revealed common ground among stakeholder groups in ranking elephant benefits, as well as a collective acknowledgement of the importance of moral values in conservation decision making. However, the benefits of living within or adjacent to an elephant reserve differed considerably across stakeholder groups. Accordingly, different but not mutually exclusive solutions were suggested, including investments in multi-level good governance, education and capacity building, active community engagement and development, reserve expansion, and promoting the reserve's integrated conservation model. This Theory of Change aims to support common ground between stakeholders, with critical feedback loops that reduce barriers and enable conditions for coexistence. It promotes conservation strategies that are socially relevant and widely supported, can create mutually beneficial outcomes for elephants, biodiversity, and multiple stakeholders, and can be applied to other species or ecosystems in general, with specific elements being tailored to those circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When wide ranging, herbivorous species such as African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are confined and their population densities increase, the vegetation may be negatively affected. Any changes to vegetation structure and complexity may then result in a series of ecological cascades on other plant and animal species that rely on the vegetation for survival. We assessed the composition and structure of the woody and succulent plants within the locally endemic Albany Thicket Biome at five protected areas (reserves) with elephants in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa in 2006 and 2016. We show that when elephant populations in this region are actively managed, wholesale negative impacts on woody thicket plant physiognomy are not observed. In fact, the only statistically detectable change over time, presumably due to elephants, was the toppling of larger, single-stemmed trees. We believe that because the Albany Thicket Biome evolved in the presence of large, top-down browsers such as elephants, the generally negative effects that have been observed of elephants on vegetation in savanna systems are not evident. However, the reserves with elephants in the Eastern Cape are all relatively small (< 400 km2) and fenced which prevents elephant dispersal. Thus, continued monitoring of elephant browsing effects is crucial for the future conservation of this unique biome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Overpopulation in conservation areas with large populations of elephants reduces the diversity of the thicket vegetation of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Monitoring species' specific impacts is a difficult task for reserves. This study investigates whether the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) can be used to evaluate the health of thicket in the Addo Elephant National Park successfully. To achieve this, different browsing intensities of elephants were used to establish a gradient of the full range of utilisation levels on thicket. These were obtained at different distances from the nearest available water sources for Mesic and Valley Thicket types. NDVI values were correlated to an elephant utilisation gradient, which was, in turn, directly related to distance from a water source. The lowest NDVI values (<0.2) were observed adjacent to watering holes where vegetation was completely degraded due to trampling by the daily congregation of animals. The highest NDVI values (>0.5 representing the densest stands of thicket vegetation) were obtained at distances exceeding 7 km from a water source where elephant densities were the lowest within the park. NDVI values could, therefore, be used to identify and monitor gradients of elephant impact on the integrity of thicket. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ongoing loss of large trees and densification of shrubs are two prevalent processes that take place in African savannas, with profound consequences for their structure and function. We evaluated herbivore impacts on savanna woody communities using a long‐term exclosure experiment in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, with three treatments: the exclusion of large mammals only (i.e. elephant and giraffe), exclusion of all herbivores larger than a hare, and areas open to all herbivores. We asked three questions: (1) How did variable exclusion of herbivores affect woody density and structure across the catena (i.e. riparian, sodic and crest vegetation)? (2) Did the exclusion of herbivores result in unique woody species composition? (3) Did herbivore exclusion result in a higher proportion of palatable species? After 17 years, we found that herbivores mainly affected the heights and densities of existing species, rather than leading to turnover of woody species assemblages. Although densities of individuals increased in the full exclosure (350 ha−1), the change was more moderate than expected. By contrast, mixed mega‐and meso‐herbivores decreased the number of trees and shrubs (decreases of 780 ha−1) via a variety of physical impacts. Meso‐herbivores alone, on the other hand, had less impact on individual density (i.e. no change), but limited average height growth and canopy dimensions in certain habitat types. Where elephants are present, they are effective at reducing the density of woody stems to the point of counteracting woody encroachment, but at the same time are actively preventing the persistence of large trees (>5 m) as well as preventing trees from recruiting to larger size classes. However, the lack of massive recruitment and woody cover increases with elephant exclusion, especially for more preferred species, suggests that factors beyond elephants, such as dispersal limitation, seed predation, and drought, are also acting upon species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) have been recognised as ecosystem engineers, where their feeding habits have been shown to alter landscapes. Within small, fenced reserves, studies exploring elephant damage on trees and their recovery have overlooked secondary damages that could be contributing to tree mortality. The aim of this study is to assess the significance of both elephant damage and secondary damage, and the subsequent tree recovery. We identified secondary damage as insects and considered wood borers and termites in this study. This was conducted in in the small fenced Karongwe Private Game Reserve, South Africa. We analysed the level of damage, recovery and insect presence using vegetation transects, where all trees ≥2 m in height were surveyed (n = 1278 trees). Forty tree species were recorded, with 5 species accounting for 77% of the data set and used for further analysis. Termites were found to be more likely to colonise damaged trees without signs of recovery. However, wood borers were more likely to colonise damaged trees showing signs of recovery. Termites and wood borer presence on damaged trees was not dependent on tree height. We suggest carefully considering management approaches for elephant‐induced termite and wood borer damage on trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation managers frequently set goals and monitor progress toward them. This often becomes a routine annual exercise, and periodic reflection over longer periods is done less often, if at all. We report on the annual monitoring of fire patterns in the Kruger National Park between 2012 and 2020, and examine how these compared with desired thresholds of spatial extent and intensity. These thresholds were based on decades of research and were aimed at achieving specific ecological outcomes. The patterns were outside of thresholds in two out of five fire management zones. In one (Zone 1), the goal was to encourage frequent burning, and this was marginally not achieved due to a severe drought during the period assessed. In Zone 3, a reduction in extent and intensity was desired, but thresholds for both were substantially exceeded. An exceedance in any given year might not trigger a management response, but if this occurs over multiple years it should trigger an examination of whether these exceedances affected the desired ecological outcomes. On reflection, we recommend that current management in four zones need not change, but that Zone 3 would require appropriate interventions. The available options can simultaneously produce positive and negative conservation outcomes, so trade‐offs become necessary. By reflecting on research findings and management challenges, the advantages and disadvantages of available options have become clear, providing a basis for prioritization and compromise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aeolianites and cemented foreshore deposits on South Africa's Cape south coast have the capacity to record and preserve events that transpired on them when they were composed of unconsolidated sand. Thirty-five Pleistocene elephant tracksites have been identified along this coastline. This abundance of sites along what was the margin of the vast Palaeo-Agulhas Plain allows for an appreciation of the forms that elephant tracks and traces can take in the context of the global proboscidean track record. They point to a significant regional elephant presence from Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 11 (~400 ka) through MIS 5 (~130–80 ka) to MIS 3 (~35 ka) and also indicate repeated use of certain dune areas. They buttress Holocene and historical evidence that elephants made use of open areas in the region, and that the remaining "Knysna elephants" retreated into dense afrotemperate forest for protection in recent centuries. Analogies can be drawn between Pleistocene elephant tracks and Mesozoic dinosaur tracks, and some of the Cape south coast elephant tracks are among the largest Cenozoic (and hence, Quaternary) tracks ever to be described. A newly identified tracksite in this area may provide the first reported evidence of elephant trunk-drag impressions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of Africa's parks and conservation areas have a vast road network, facilitating motorized vehicle game viewing. These roads have an influence that is both road type-and species-specific, on the surrounding ecosystem. Due to their higher traffic volumes, we hypothesized that tar roads and their immediate surrounds within the Kruger National Park, South Africa, are avoided to a greater extent by medium-to-large mammals than comparable dirt roads in the park. We systematically recorded the presence of medium-to-large mammal species from our vehicle, recording data at 401 tar and 369 dirt road stops in the Kruger National Park. In addition to species presence, we also estimated the proximity of animals to the road, as well as herd sizes. Our results indicate an equal likelihood of viewing the commonly recorded medium-to-large mammal species from both road types. The likelihood of observing larger herd sizes was also similar between tar and dirt roads for the three most commonly observed species, African elephant (Loxodonta africana), impala (Aepyceros melampus), and plains zebra (Equus quagga), and the likelihood of viewing impala and zebra close to the road also did not differ between tar and dirt roads. However, elephant was observed more often close to tar roads, compared to dirt roads. We interpreted this as the result of potentially increased woody cover associated with more water runoff in close proximity to tar roads compared with dirt roads. Our results not only have ecological significance, supporting the notion that many of the park's species are habituated to human infrastructure, but also management implications, informing park officials about the influence of road traffic and road type on wildlife distributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reversing biodiversity loss is a global imperative that requires setting aside sufficient space for species. In South Africa, an estimated area of 20 million ha is under wildlife ranching, a form of private land enterprise that adopts wildlife-based land uses for commercial gain. This land has potential to contribute towards biodiversity conservation, but the extent to which this occurs has not been evaluated. Using structured questionnaires of 226 wildlife ranchers, we assessed how the sector contributes towards the conservation of ungulates and elephants (hereafter herbivores). Overall, 40 herbivore species were present across the sample, where individual ranches had a mean of 15.0 (± 4.8) species, 1.9 (± 1.5) threatened species, and 3.6 (± 3.1) extralimital species per property. In comparison to 54 state PAs, wildlife ranches had significantly higher species richness, more threatened species but more extralimital species when property/reserve size was controlled for. Ranches conducting trophy hunting had similar species richness and numbers of extralimital species per ha, but fewer threatened species when compared to ranches conducting ecotourism. We estimate that 4.66–7.25 million herbivores occur on ranches nationally, representing one of the few examples on earth where indigenous mammal populations are thriving and demonstrating how sustainable use can lead to rewilding. We discuss the potential negative impacts of widespread game fencing on landscape fragmentation and gene flow, as well as how the widespread occurrence of extralimital species may lead to hybridisation, biotic homogenisation, and changes to vegetation dynamics. Despite these challenges, commercial wildlife ranching offers a viable option for conserving large mammalian herbivore biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elephant culling is included in National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants in the Republic of South Africa, as a last-resort option to reduce elephant population size when required to meet reserve objectives. Recent judgments in South African courts have emphasised the importance of considering animal welfare in conservation. We assess the approved method of culling elephant family units, in terms of the legal and policy framework in South Africa, as well as considering elephant welfare and wellbeing. We find that the current culling method is likely to be inhumane, and potentially inconsistent with the Constitution, as interpreted by the judiciary. In addition, in certain circumstances, culling is illegal in terms of the Animals Protection and Meat Safety Acts, and contravenes World Organisation for Animal Health and global standards for the slaughter of animals. We recommend considering a moratorium on culling of elephant family units, as well as of lone bulls, until humane slaughter methods, and standard operation procedures that ensure an extremely high probability of instantaneous ("clean") kill, are developed and approved. We recommend an ethics review process for conservation management interventions involving wellbeing risks to animals, such as is required for animal research. Notwithstanding other imperatives that need consideration, conservation practice should better balance welfare, to align with both South African legislation and global norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trophic rewilding provides a nature-based solution for biological conservation; however, empirical studies demonstrating rewilding effects are limited. Megaherbivores moderate the type and quality of habitat available to other fauna. However, these effects may take time to develop. Further, fauna responses to megaherbivore rewilding will depend on a suite of life-history traits and strategies that allow persistence within megaherbivore modified landscapes. We conducted a space-for-time field survey in South African savanna to determine if habitat modifications mediated by a reintroduced megaherbivore, the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana), impacts the abundance of the diurnal arboreal cape dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus capensis) and two generalist diurnal skinks [the variable skink (Trachylepis varia) and striped skink (Trachylepis striata), collectively] across a 47-year period. The relative abundance of lizards and six habitat attributes utilized by lizards were assessed at 30 sites stratified across three biophysically and climatically similar nature reserves with different elephant reintroduction times (no elephants, 2003, 1972). The arboreal gecko was less common at the reserve with an older reintroduction time than the other reserves and was most commonly observed on, and positively correlated with, the density of the corkwood tree (Commiphora mollis). The generalist skinks were common across all reserves and were observed in a variety of habitats. Our results suggest that elephant rewilding differently impacts lizard species with different life-history strategies and that these effects take prolonged periods to develop. Given such knowledge, a long-term understanding of post-rewilding interactions will be a key point when designing and assessing the success of rewilding initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines conflict between farmers and elephants in the Addo region in 1910s–1930s South Africa to explore the porosity of the concepts 'wild', 'tame', and 'domestic', and their relationship to race, degeneration, nature conservation, and colonialism. In the 1910s, settler farmers indicted the 'Addo Elephants', as 'vicious' thieves who raided crops and 'hunted' farmers. This view conflicted with a widespread perception of elephants as docile, sagacious, and worthy of protection. Seeking to reconcile these views, bureaucrats were divided between exterminating the animals, creating a game reserve, and drawing upon the expertise of Indian mahouts to domesticate them. Ultimately, all three options were attempted: the population was decimated by hunter Phillip Jacobus Pretorius, an elephant reserve was created, the animals were tamed to 'lose their fear of man' and fed oranges. Despite the presence of tame elephants and artificial feeding, the reserve was publicized as a natural habitat, and a window onto the prehistoric. This was not paradoxical but provokes a need to rethink the relationship between wildness, tameness, and domesticity. These concepts were not implicitly opposed but existed on a spectrum paralleling imperialist hierarchies of civilization, race, and evolution, upon which tame elephants could still be considered wild. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Helm, C.W.; Cawthra, H.C.; De Vynck, J.C.; Dixon, M., and Stear, W., 2021. Elephant tracks: A biogenic cause of potholes in Pleistocene South African coastal rocks. Journal of Coastal Research, 37(1), 59–74. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The Cape south coast of South Africa contains extensive outcrops of Pleistocene aeolianite and cemented foreshore deposits. More than 250 vertebrate tracksites have been identified in these deposits, including 35 elephant tracksites. In places, where large palaeosurfaces are occasionally exposed, numerous potholes are evident on the remains of what is most likely a palaeo-coastline. Features suggestive of elephant tracks are apparent on such surfaces and in overlying layers. In order to develop, potholes require a disturbance or depression in the surface to act as a "pothole-precursor" on which erosive forces can act. While elephant tracks or similar biogenic origins for potholes have not previously been described, such an explanation appears plausible for at least some pothole features in areas known to have harboured elephants or other large vertebrate trackmakers when these surfaces were composed of unconsolidated sand. Four sites on the Cape south coast are examined and described. Evidence for use of beaches as travel corridors for elephants is described, and candidate Pleistocene trackmaker species are considered. The age of these palaeo-surfaces is considered to range from Marine Isotope Stage 11 to Marine Isotope Stage 5. It is concluded that depressions formed by elephant tracks should be considered as a precursor for the formation of potholes on suitable Pleistocene surfaces in littoral zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a first report on species of endosymbiotic ciliates (Litostomatea, Trichostomatia) inhabiting the intestine of zebras in South Africa. Ciliates from Mountain Zebra were investigated for the first time in the world. The wild population of mountain zebras in general and the Cape Mountain Zebra subspecies in particular is low in numbers: this species is included as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List. Approximately 15 species of trichostome ciliates from 9 different genera were found in the samples collected from wild zebras in Western Cape, South Africa. Some of the ciliate species are also common to horses and other equids, while others are unique for zebras. The ciliates of Triplumaria genus common to elephants and rhinoceroses, and the species Blepharosphaera ceratotherii previously described in rhinoceroses were found in equids for the first time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Specifically, ants forage for the honeydew that scale insects produce from tree sap, and, consequently, they may defend either the scale insect or the tree tissue from potential herbivores. We also tested how ants on the trees reacted to a perceived threat in order to learn whether or not the ants may defend the scale insects. Our survey of I S. nigrescens i trees across the herbivore exclosure treatment and exposed plots revealed the presence of ants, most of which were I Polyrhachis i sp. I , i in both unprotected and herbivore-protected trees (Figure b). Since the scale insect was only found in trees unprotected from herbivores, this suggests there may be a complex relationship between the plant, the ants, the scale insect, and herbivores. [Extracted from the article]

Aim: African elephants are ecosystem engineers. As such, their long‐term patterns of distribution and abundance (i.e., space‐use intensity) will influence ecosystem structure and function. We elucidate these patterns for bull versus herd groups, by analysing the spatiotemporal dynamics of an increasing elephant population in relation to key ecological drivers: rainfall, distance to major rivers and time since last fire. Significant changes to the long‐term patterns of elephant density and group‐type probabilities are identified and explained. Location: Kruger National Park, South Africa. Methods: Using almost three decades of census records (1985–2012), we applied Multiple Point Process Models to assess the influence of rainfall, rivers and fire in shaping elephant space‐use. Significant changes to the long‐term patterns of elephant density and group type were also identified using kernel density estimates and the spatially varying probability of encountering either bull or herd group. Results: Bull and herd groups are no longer clearly segregated as available empty space becomes more limited. Bull and herd groups have dichotomous resource selection functions, in that bulls concentrate in areas receiving lower rainfall but more frequent fires while herds concentrate in higher rainfall areas experiencing less frequent fires. Both bull and herd groups concentrate closer to major rivers, emphasizing rivers as important spatial drivers. Overall, densities increased most significantly closer to rivers and in areas experiencing fewer fires. Fire was also a strong agent of group‐type change, as the probability of finding bulls, contrary to herds, significantly increased as fire return periods shortened. Main conclusions: Elephant distribution and abundance patterns have homogenized in response to increased space limitations, with group‐specific, fire‐driven distribution patterns emerging overtime. Results herein should be used to help manage elephant space‐use through the establishment of possible refuge areas and the development of more empirical research into elephant impacts in future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When vegetation structure is altered, songbird communities may be affected. Despite speculation that African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) browsing impacts bird communities, existing data are limited. I sampled the bird communities of the Albany Thicket Biome at 10 sites in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, half with elephants and half without. Songbird community parameters were best predicted by how long elephants had been present, elephant density and the percentage cover of thicket vegetation. The sites where elephants had been present for longer had more bird species and increased songbird density and diversity. However, bird density also increased with increasing thicket vegetation cover and this is a phenomenon unlikely to be compatible with long-term elephant presence. There was an almost equal split between the number of bird species that appeared to be negatively affected by changes in habitat structure (47%) and those which benefited (53%). Smaller birds were generally more abundant as vegetation structural integrity increased and larger birds were more abundant when vegetation structural integrity declined. The browsing of elephants could be viewed as facilitative for songbirds in the short term. However, this effect may not persist in the long term because all elephant populations (notorious tree-fellers) in the Eastern Cape are found in fenced areas where natural migration is not possible. More broadly, my data provide important insight into how avian communities respond to habitat transformation at the local and regional scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As human populations and developments expand, it is inevitable that interactions between wildlife and electrical infrastructure will increase. Such is the case in protected areas, where mammal electrocutions often occur as a result of damaged electrical infrastructure. In a previous study, a camera trap survey along a power line in the Kruger National Park (Kruger) revealed that large mammals [particularly Cape buffalo, Syncerus caffer, rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum and Diceros bicornis) and African elephant, Loxodonta africana] damaged wooden utility poles by rubbing or pushing against them. Such interactions can result in poles breaking, creating high electrocution risks to wildlife. In this study, we tested four mitigation measures (steel sleeve,VB Rhino, Grating box and Polefix industrial cast) for their effectiveness in reducing damaging contact between these four large mammals and wooden electrical poles. Camera traps were set up along the Foskor-Kruger 22 kV power line in the Kruger over 16 months to monitor wildlife interactions at experimentally treated ( n= 14) and control ( n= 8) utility poles. Direct contact between large mammals (buffalo: 64%, rhino: 23%, elephant: 11%) and poles made up 71% of pole--wildlife interactions. A cost-- benefit analysis was undertaken to determine the most cost-effective mitigation measure. Our findings suggest that implementing mitigation measures can reduce wildlife-pole interactions and subsequently reduce the risk of wildlife electrocutions in protected areas. Based on both its effectiveness, advantages and cost,we recommend using the Grating box mitigation method to reduce large mammal damage to poles in the Kruger. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

waterholes are a widely used, yet contested wildlife management practice in semi-arid environments.We evaluated wildlife water provisioning at four artificial waterholes in the southern region of the Kruger National Park.We documented daily waterhole visitation patterns of mammals during the wet and dry seasons using camera-traps. We recorded 26 mammal species at the waterholes, with African elephants ( Loxodonta africana) and impalas ( Aepyceros melampus) being the most abundant.We used generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) to determine which variables (season, time of day, water quality, and the presence of carnivores or elephants) would affect animal visitation. Waterhole visitation patterns differed according to time of day, but this effect remained relatively constant between seasons. More animals visited waterholes in the dry season compared to the wet season. Carnivore presence negatively affected impala abundance. Elephant presence did not affect impala and white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum) visits to waterholes.Water quality also appeared to play a role in determining animal abundance. Based on our results, though obtained from a limited sample size, we suggest some management practices to be considered when deciding which waterholes should be closed down or left open. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Megafauna strongly affect vegetation structure and composition, often leading to management concern. However, the extent of their influence across large scales and varying ecosystems remains largely unknown. Using high resolution airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), we investigated landscape‐scale changes in vegetation height and three‐dimensional (3D) structure across landscapes of varying elephant densities and presence over time, and in response to surface water distribution and terrain variability in the heavily managed thicket biome of the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Elephants caused up to a fourfold reduction in vegetation height and altered the vertical profile, but increased vegetation height variability. Vegetation height also increased with elevation and distance from water, particularly in areas that elephants had long occupied at high densities. Slope had opposing effects on vegetation height, with height increasing with slope in areas long exposed to elephants, but decreasing where elephants had only recently been granted access. Our results suggest that elephants are the primary agents of vegetation change in this ecosystem, but that the strength of their effects varies across the landscape, enabling management to use water and terrain as mitigation tools. We further highlight the necessity of landscape‐level experimental studies on megafaunal effects to untangle mechanisms and establish causality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A substantial period of life after reproduction ends, known as postreproductive lifespan (PRLS), is at odds with classical life history theory and its causes and mechanisms have puzzled evolutionary biologists for decades. Prolonged PRLS has been confirmed in only two non-human mammals, both odontocete cetaceans in the family Delphinidae. We investigate the evidence for PRLS in a third species, the false killer whale, Pseudorca crassidens, using a quantitative measure of PRLS and morphological evidence from reproductive tissues. Results: We examined specimens from false killer whales from combined strandings (South Africa, 1981) and harvest (Japan 1979-80) and found morphological evidence of changes in the activity of the ovaries in relation to age. Ovulation had ceased in 50% of whales over 45 years, and all whales over 55 years old had ovaries classified as postreproductive. We also calculated a measure of PRLS, known as postreproductive representation (PrR) as an indication of the effect of inter-population demographic variability. PrR for the combined sample was 0.14, whereas the mean of the simulated distribution for PrR under the null hypothesis of no PRLS was 0.02. The 99th percentile of the simulated distribution was 0.08 and no simulated value exceeded 0.13. These results suggest that PrR was convincingly different from the measures simulated under the null hypothesis. Conclusions: We found morphological and statistical evidence for PRLS in South African and Japanese pods of false killer whales, suggesting that this species is the third non-human mammal in which this phenomenon has been demonstrated in wild populations. Nonetheless, our estimate for PrR in false killer whales (0.14) is lower than the single values available for the short-finned pilot whale (0.28) and the killer whale (0.22) and is more similar to working Asian elephants (0.13). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Termites and mammalian herbivores might derive mutual benefit from each other through positive feedback loops, but empirical evidence is lacking. One suggested positive feedback loop is between termites and elephant, both ecosystem engineers. Termites, as decomposer organisms, contribute to nutrient cycling and soil enrichment, creating hotspots with increased forage quality. Elephant are known to select these high quality vegetation patches, depositing woody debris when foraging, but it is unknown whether elephant presence might affect termites, and if a feedback loop between these two taxa exists. We tested this hypothesis by measuring termite diversity and activity over three months in the summer wet season, inside and outside a long-term (eight years) elephant exclosure experiment in Sand Forest at Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa. Termites were sampled using cellulose baits and woody debris was quantified using line transects. Termite activity was not affected by eight years of elephant absence, despite a greater volume of woody debris where elephant were present. Termite assemblages were similarly unaffected by elephant absence. Apart from Schedorhinotermes , all other termite genera were sampled in both treatments. Therefore, the postulated positive feedback loop between termites and elephant is not supported in Sand Forest. However, this does not contradict findings that areas with high termite activity positively influence herbivore foraging, only that elephant foraging does not affect termite activity. This suggests that elephant disturbance (and elephant management policies) has little to no effect on termites and the fundamental roles they play in ecosystems over at least the short-term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infection can cause acute, often fatal, EEHV hemorrhagic disease in free-ranging and human-managed Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and human-managed African elephants (Loxodonta africana). However, significant knowledge gaps exist pertaining to the presence of EEHV in free-ranging African elephant populations. We retrospectively screened 142 opportunistically collected samples (blood, n=98; bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, n=21; trunk wash (TW) fluid, n=23) obtained between 2010 and 2020 from 98 free-ranging African elephants in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, for the presence of different EEHVs, as well as determining the real-time quantitative PCR positivity rate in this population. With the use of validated, previously published DNA extraction and real-time quantitative PCR protocols provided by the National Elephant Herpesvirus Laboratory (Washington, DC, USA), EEHV was detected in nine male African elephants from samples collected in 2011 (n=1), 2013 (n=1), 2018 (n=2), 2019 (n=4), and 2020 (n=1). Viral detection was more common in respiratory compared with blood samples. Six elephants tested positive for EEHV2 subtype (blood, n=2; BAL, n=3; TW, n=2), including one individual that tested positive on matched respiratory samples (BAL and TW). Four elephants tested positive for EEHV3-4-7 (blood, n=1; BAL, n=2; TW, n=1), whereas EEHV6 was not detected in any of the study animals. One elephant tested positive for both EEHV2 and EEHV3-4-7 in the same BAL sample. Even though the levels of viremia varied between 158 and 1,292 viral genome equivalents/mL blood and viral shedding of EEHV2 and EEHV3-4-7 was detected in respiratory samples, no clinical signs were observed in these apparently healthy elephants. These findings are consistent with reports of asymptomatic EEHV infection in human-managed African elephants., (© Wildlife Disease Association 2023.)

The initial settlement of the Greater Mapungubwe Landscape by Zhizo ceramic-producing farmers around AD 900 is said to be linked to the large elephant population that the region once supported. Elephant ivory was used in the Indian Ocean trade network to obtain exotic trade goods such as glass beads and cloth. However, there has been no attempt to determine whether the local elephant population was large enough to support such trade endeavours. In this paper, we use an inter-disciplinary approach to establish a projection of the past elephant population and demonstrate that the ivory tonnage in the region, including that which could be recovered from natural carcasses, could have supported trade demand. We also argue that at the time of settlement the same environmental productivity supporting the elephant population provided an ecological system amenable to cultivation and could support domesticated livestock. In addition, the local topography, river networks and community of large mammalian herbivores contributed to the attractiveness of the region from a settlement perspective. We believe that the elephant population was only one component present on the landscape that attracted agriculturalists to settle in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Because of overpopulation of African elephants in South Africa and the consequent threat to biodiversity, the need for a method of population control has become evident. In this regard, the potential use of the porcine zona pellucida (pZP) vaccine as an effective means for population control is explored. While potential effects of pZP treatment on social behavior of African elephants have been investigated, no examination of the influence of pZP vaccination on the endocrine correlates in treated females has been undertaken. In this study, ovarian activity of free-ranging, pZP-treated African elephant females was monitored noninvasively for 1 yr at Thornybush Private Nature Reserve, South Africa, by measuring fecal 5α-pregnan-3β-ol-20-on concentrations via enzyme immunoassay. A total of 719 fecal samples from 19 individuals were collected over the study period, averaging 38 samples collected per individual (minimum, maximum: 16, 52). Simultaneously, behavioral observations were made to record the occurrence of estrous behavior for comparison. Each elephant under study showed 5α-pregnan-3β-ol-20-on concentrations rising above baseline at some period during the study indicating luteal activity. Average 5α-pregnan-3β-ol-20-on concentrations were 1.61 ± 0.46 μg/g (mean ± SD). Within sampled females, 42.9% exhibited estrous cycles within the range reported for captive African elephants, 14.3% had irregular cycles, and 42.9% did not appear to be cycling. Average estrous cycle duration was 14.72 ± 0.85 wk. Estrous behavior coincided with the onset of the luteal phase and a subsequent rise in 5α-pregnan-3β-ol-20-on concentrations. Average 5α-pregnan-3β-ol-20-on levels positively correlated with rainfall. No association between average individual 5α-pregnan-3β-ol-20-on concentrations or cyclicity status with age or parity were detected. Earlier determination of efficacy was established via fecal hormone analysis with no pregnancies determined 22 mo post-treatment and onward. Results indicate the presence of ovarian activity amongst pZP-treated female African elephants in 2 yr after initial immunization. Further study should now be aimed toward investigating the long-term effects of pZP vaccination on the reproductive function of female African elephants. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We studied the seasonal home ranges and space use of three breeding herds of elephants ( Loxodonta africana) for 3-5 years in an area comprising South Africa's Sabi Sand Reserve (SSR) and Kruger National Park (KNP). Global Positioning System (GPS) transmitters were attached to the matriarchs of three herds and set to transmit a single daily location. Each herd was located in SSR 31%, 60% and 84% of the time. During the wet summer months, the herds walked longer distances and occupied larger seasonal home ranges than during the corresponding dry winter period. Core areas were centred on riverine habitats within both parks, with all three herds exhibiting closer distances to rivers and artificial water holes than would be expected if they were moving randomly. Home ranges within SSR overlapped much of the park. However, in KNP they occupied discrete areas with little overlap. Much of the movement between the two parks occurred along well-defined corridors. This study shows that elephant herds depended upon the resources of both parks, providing an insight into their within- and between-seasonal movements. This highlights the importance of ongoing co-operation between wildlife managers from both parks when forming policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Nkuhlu large-scale long-term exclusion experiment in Kruger National Park was designed to study the long-term effects of large herbivores on vegetation. One treatment excludes elephants, another excludes all herbivores larger than hares and another one comprises an open, control area. Vegetation monitoring was implemented in 2002 when a baseline survey was conducted prior to exclusion. Monitoring was repeated 5 years after exclusion. Data from the surveys were analysed to establish how structure and composition of woody vegetation had changed 5 years after herbivore exclusion. The analysis showed that neither plant assemblage nor mean vegetation height had changed significantly since exclusion. However, both species richness and density of woody plants increased 5 years after exclusion of all large herbivores, but not after the exclusion of elephants alone. One already common species, Dichrostachys cinerea, became more common after excluding all large herbivores compared with either no exclusion or elephant exclusion, possibly leading to competitive suppression of other species. Species other than D. cinerea tended to either increase or decrease in density, but the changes were insufficient to induce significant shifts in the overall assemblage of woody plants. The results indicate that after 5 years of exclusion, the combined assemblage of large herbivores, and not elephants alone, could induce changes in species richness and abundances of woody plants, but the effect was so far insufficient to induce measureable shifts in the assemblages of woody plants. It is possible that assemblages will change with time and increasing elephant numbers may amplify future changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Manipulations of herbivores in protected areas may have profound effects on ecosystems. We examine short-term effects on tree species assemblages and resource utilization by a mesoherbivore and small-size herbivores (ungulates <20 kg) in Sand Forest, after browsing release from a megaherbivore (elephant), or both a mega- and mesoherbivore (nyala), respectively. Effects were experimentally separated using replicated exclosures where all trees were counted, identified to species and browsing events recorded. Tree species assemblages were impacted by both elephant and nyala, and by each herbivore species individually. Tree turnover rates were higher where both herbivore species were present than in their combined absence. Diet was segregated among elephant, nyala and small-size herbivores. Both resource specificity and browsing pressure by nyala increased in absence of elephant; small-size herbivores increased resource specificity in absence of elephant, and increased browsing pressure in absence of both elephant and nyala. This implies interference competition with competitive release. The indirect effect of the manipulation of herbivore populations, through the removal of one or two herbivore species, caused a shift in tree species composition and diet of smaller-size herbivores. These indirect effects, especially on tree species composition, can become critical as they affect vegetation dynamics, biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Therefore, in order to conserve habitats and biodiversity across all trophic levels, conservation managers should consider the effects of: (1) the full herbivore assemblage present; and (2) any effects of altering the relative and absolute abundance of different herbivore species on other herbivore species and vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Management of Kruger National Park (KNP) has recently made considerable progress in developing new policies to address biodiversity conservation and management challenges. These include tourism, water provision and elephant management policies. This study examines the integration of these three policies with regard to biodiversity conservation and management. Findings indicate that in their current fragmented form, the three policies actually undermine opportunities for effective biodiversity conservation and management in the KNP. This can be reversed by adopting a new management approach based on an environmental matrix organizational framework. Such a framework provides a mechanism for integrated policymaking and implementation and for improving biodiversity conservation and management in the KNP. The study concludes that an integrated approach is necessary due to the interlinkages between policies that affect biodiversity conservation at the KNP. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Determining the age of individuals in a population can lead to a better understanding of population dynamics through age structure analysis and estimation of age-specific fecundity and survival rates. Shoulder height has been used to accurately assign age to free-ranging African savanna elephants. However, back length may provide an analog measurable in aerialbased surveys. We assessed the relationship between back length and age for known-age elephants in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, and Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. We also compared age- and sex-specific back lengths between these populations and compared adult female back lengths across 11 widely dispersed populations in five African countries. Sex-specific Von Bertalanffy growth curves provided a good fit to the back length data of known-age individuals. Based on back length, accurate ages could be assigned relatively precisely for females up to 23 years of age and males up to 17. The female back length curve allowed more precise age assignment to older females than the curve for shoulder height does, probably because of divergence between the respective growth curves. However, this did not appear to be the case for males, but the sample of known-age males was limited to ≤27 years. Age- and sex-specific back lengths were similar in Amboseli National Park and Addo Elephant National Park. Furthermore, while adult female back lengths in the three Zambian populations were generally shorter than in other populations, back lengths in the remaining eight populations did not differ significantly, in support of claims that growth patterns of African savanna elephants are similar over wide geographic regions. Thus, the growth curves presented here should allow researchers to use aerial-based surveys to assign ages to elephants with greater precision than previously possible and, therefore, to estimate population variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Even though Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra (marula) is a well-studied, keystone tree species with high ecological, commercial and cultural value, significant gaps in our understanding of its reproductive biology exist, particularly the factors limiting fruit and seed production, seed fate and the persistence of the seed bank. Therefore, a detailed quantitative assessment of these factors was conducted at five sites in the low altitude savannas of South Africa. Sites varied with respect to fire regime, large mammals, geology and rainfall. Most sites showed male-biased secondary sex ratios and the minimum fruiting stem diameter ranged between 7.1 and 15.7cm across sites. Sites with higher levels of disturbance (fire and large browsers) had trees producing fruit at larger minimum stem diameters than sites with lower levels of disturbance. Fruit production was highly variable between individuals, within and between sites, and from year to year. Variability in fruit production across years at one site was greater than the variability across sites in one year, indicating that drivers such as weather, insect herbivory, fire and predator numbers, which vary annually, play a greater role than more constant drivers such as mammalian herbivory, soil types or long-term rainfall. No significant relationship was found between environmental variables (rainfall and temperature) and annual fruit production, indicating a trade-off between vegetative growth and reproduction between years. Since marula fruits are large and heavy, the species relies primarily on mammalian dispersal agents such as the African elephant, which have also been shown to increase the germination rate. However, rodents also appear to play a significant role in seed dispersal. Seed predation rates tend to be highest in areas of low disturbance (no fire and no large browsers). While marula has a small persistent seed bank, recruitment appears to be reliant on the current season''s fruit crop. This study provides a detailed quantitative assessment of important reproductive and seed fate vital rates for future population modelling. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper uses five inter-related topics (the management of rivers, fire regimes, invasive alien species, rare antelope and elephants) to assess 15years of adaptive management in the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. The importance of adaptive planning (a process for developing achievable objectives, which is adaptive because objectives are revised as understanding grows), has been highlighted by this assessment, and the KNP’s track record of adaptive planning is better than that of adaptive management. Adaptive management has identified important issues with regard to biodiversity conservation, and resulted in a shift in management focus to these issues. Because the conservation outcomes of management shifts will only manifest themselves in the longer term, the relative success of adaptive management should be measured by the degree to which management has been refocused onto priority issues, and by the rate at which new understanding is generated. Some issues previously seen as important (fire, rare antelope), are now regarded as less so, while others remain important and difficult to solve, although there has been some progress (rivers, alien plants and elephants). It has also proved difficult to implement active adaptive management (large-scale, replicated trials using different approaches), because of local variation and logistical problems. Adaptive management will remain the approach of choice because there is some progress, and no known alternative to managing this complex ecosystem. It is simply not an option to return to the easily-understood “implementable” solutions (such as culling, regular prescribed burning, or artificial water provision) that demonstrably did not work. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Sand Forest in the Maputaland region of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa is deemed the most valuable, but also probably the most complex vegetation type of this part of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany hotspot of biodiversity. However, Sand Forest is under threat from the current human population growth in that region as well as from uncontrolled increases in wild herbivore numbers in conservation areas. The present study compares the impacts of herbivores and humans on the state of woody resources between two sites under differing utilisation regimes. Sand Forest was found to be a complex association of tree assemblages defined by different canopy and subcanopy properties. Although marked differences in the abundance of selected species were noted at the two sites, the Sand Forest remained dominated by fine-grained species under both utilisation regimes. The fine-grained nature of Sand Forest implies that regeneration depends on the creation of small canopy gaps either by natural processes, humans or elephants, while the creation of large gaps could transform it into woodland. Management of conservation areas where Sand Forest occurs should therefore concentrate efforts on regulating animal populations to levels that provide gap properties that favour forest regeneration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Most conservation practitioners rely on experience-based information for management decisions. In South Africa, government policy thus directs managers to base decisions for elephant management on the best available scientific information. The reliance of their management decisions on science, however, is unknown. We interviewed 30 managers from small to large protected areas in South Africa to evaluate whether science underpinned strategic and applied management decisions regarding elephants. We also evaluated their perspectives on limitations to, and opportunities for, greater reliance on science. Twenty-nine managers valued science as a platform for their decisions. However, most managers based decisions on experience-based information. Only 28%, 30% and 8% of managers respectively developed objectives, identified issues and selected management methods on science-based information. Furthermore, only 30% selected a desired number of elephants, and 5% selected a population control method, according to science-based information. The probability of managers basing decisions on science-based information differed with management area size, tenure, planning timeframes and manager experience. However, except for experience, these relationships were weak, and overall an implementation gap between science and elephant management existed. Limitations for science to inform decisions included lack of relevance and application of science findings to respective management areas, and scientists’ attitudes and credibility. Opportunities included more site specific studies, better communication of, and easier access to scientific material. These opportunities could enable scientists to contribute more effectively to elephant management decisions and improve the reliance on science among the wider community of conservation practitioners in Africa. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study determined the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in faecal samples from elephant (Loxodonta africana), buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and impala (Aepyceros melampus) in the Kruger National Park (KNP) and an adjacent game reserve in South Africa. Two of the study areas were in close proximity to rural communities on the western KNP boundary and the third study area was located in the centre of the KNP. Fresh stool samples (n =445) were collected and tested using an immunofluorescent antibody test (IFA) for Cryptosporidium parvum. A total of 278 of these were randomly selected (approximately 90 samples per wildlife species) and tested with the modified Ziehl Neelsen staining technique (ZN) for Cryptosporidium spp. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was highest in elephants (25.8% [95% confidence interval: 17.3, 35.9]), compared to buffalo (5.5% [1.8, 12.4]) and impala (4.3% [1.2, 10.5]). C. parvum showed similar patterns, being most prevalent in elephants (4.2% [1.5, 8.8]), compared to buffalo (1.4% [0.2, 5.1]) and impala (1.9% [0.4, 5.3]). 29 samples, including ZN positive and IFA positive samples, were retested using a real time PCR (rtPCR) technique. Of the 28 ZN-positive samples, 14 (50%) were positive with rtPCR and of the 9 IFA-positive samples 6 (67%) were confirmed positive by rtPCR. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts was significantly higher in both of the two study areas adjacent to the western KNP boundary compared to the area in the centre of the KNP (OR =3.2 [1.2, 9.0]; P =0.024). Our study demonstrates for the first time the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. in wildlife in South Africa. The transmission of this parasite between wildlife, domestic animals and humans is a plausible hypothesis and represents a potential risk for immunodeficient human populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The potential consequences of growing elephant populations are a cause of debate and concern in many African conservation areas. Even though space use of elephants is central to understanding their biodiversity consequences, few studies explicitly consider how different management strategies influence elephants’ spatial utilization of landscapes. Here we study elephant’s spatial dispersion patterns in relation to different sized rivers under different management regimes by analyzing aerial census data collected annually during the mid dry-season between 1985 and 2007 across the 19,485km2 Kruger National Park. We found that different sized rivers can be used as a simple proxy for elephant density gradients in the dry-season. This has implications for stratifying and designing elephant impact monitoring programmes in semi-arid savannas. Furthermore, we found that dry-season elephant densities increased around rivers in a period after culling was stopped and large-scale artificial water provision reduced. Most importantly, these localized density increases were not spatially homogeneous, with culling and water provision having a greater suppressing effect on the localized densities around larger rivers than around smaller rivers and areas far removed from rivers. Assuming a positive correlation between elephant density and elephant impact, the impact of elephants around larger rivers has increased disproportionably compared to areas around smaller rivers and areas far removed from rivers since management stopped culling and reduced large-scale water provision. Since areas around the larger rivers have unique functional, structural and compositional characteristics, they should receive specific attention in impact monitoring programmes and elephant management policies. Furthermore, we recommend that if artificial waterholes are provided in semi-arid systems, it should not be located close to rivers that are mostly dry nor in areas far from rivers as this may compromise the spatio-temporal refugia that these areas afford aspects of biodiversity that are sensitive to continuous elephant impact. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Elephant impacts on spider assemblages, and the potential use of spiders as indicators of habitat changes was assessed in central Maputaland, South Africa. Three habitats, namely undisturbed sand forest, elephant disturbed sand forest and mixed woodland, were sampled. To ensure a thorough representation of all spider guilds, spiders were collected by tree beating, sweep netting, active searching, leaf litter sifting and pitfall traps. In total, 2808 individual spiders, representing 36 families, 144 determined genera and 251 species were collected. Spider abundance was highest in the undisturbed sand forest ( n = 1129, S = 179), followed by elephant disturbed sand forest ( n = 1006, S = 165) and mixed woodland ( n = 673, S = 171). Assemblages of the two sand forests were more similar than to the mixed woodland assemblage. Active hunting species were indicators of the more open vegetation of elephant disturbed sand forest (six active hunters, no web-builders) and mixed woodland (ten active hunters, one web-builder), whereas web-builders are indicators of the dense, complex vegetation structure of undisturbed sand forest (six web-builders, three active hunters). Elephant-induced changes to the vegetation structure in this high diversity, high endemism region result in changes in the composition of spider assemblages, and may need to be mitigated by management intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the indirect influence of mammalian herbivores on invertebrates, by utilising long-term mammalian herbivore exclosures in Kruger National Park. The exclosures span three distinct habitat types (crest, footslope and riparian) on a catena. By performing invertebrate collections in the exclosures and in a control area we were able to assess the indirect effect of mammalian herbivory on the invertebrate community and if this influence varied across habitat types. Our results indicate that large mammalian herbivores (notably elephants) had significant negative effects on total invertebrate abundance, while mediumsized mammalian herbivores affected the abundance and richness of beetles and grasshoppers negatively. Habitat type affected the invertebrates; spider abundance and richness peaked on the footslope, while beetles were the most abundant and taxon-rich in the riparian zone. Hence, our results suggest that indirect effects of mammalian herbivores on the invertebrate community may be significant, and in most cases negative, but also that the effects of mammalian herbivores vary across invertebrate groups. Thus, to better understand the broad-scale implications of changed mammalian herbivore pressures for the functioning of savanna systems, it may be important to take effects on invertebrate communities into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of vegetation and particularly trees in enclosed small reserves where elephant populations are confined is a contentious conservation issue. In Tembe Elephant Park in Maputaland, the diverse Sand Forest is considered the most valuable feature to conserve; yet it is considered at risk from increasing elephant utilization of the park’s vegetation in general. The mean canopy removal by elephants across the park was studied over two periods: a recent period including the twelve months before the study and an older period >12 months earlier. Age of utilization was determined from the degree of decay observed on woody fibres. The relationships between intensity of utilization, vegetation unit selection and distance to water were evaluated. Results show that utilization patterns have shifted in the recent drier period, during which elephants used vegetation communities closer to permanent water. Concurringly, a significant decrease in utilization intensity was correlated to an increasing distance from water points in the park during that period, while this effect was not observed during the wetter old period. We debate that active water availability management may be a way to limit elephant utilization in small fenced reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reintroduction of African elephants into fenced game reserves throughout South Africa has presented managers with several challenges. Although elephants are a natural part of southern African ecosystems, their confinement to fenced protected areas in South Africa has exacerbated their potential to impact their habitats negatively. However, many studies investigating the impact of elephants have failed to control for the effects of other browsers on the vegetative community. In this study, we used location data on an elephant herd to delineate high-use and low-use areas. This paired design allowed us to minimize confounding factors that could explain differences in the structure, diversity and utilization of woody species. We found little evidence to suggest elephant-mediated change in, or selection for, the structure or diversity of woody species; however, our results suggest that elephants may be altering the composition of species by preferentially using areas with higher canopy diversity and by enhancing sapling recruitment. Although stripping of bark was higher in high-use areas, there was no evidence of differential mortality of tree species. Therefore, in our study area, and over the current time scale, elephants are having a negligible impact on the vegetative community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]