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Ticks are involved in the transmission a plethora of pathogens. To effectively control ticks and mitigate the risks associated with tick-borne diseases, it is important to implement tick control measures. These may include the use of acaricides as well as the development and implementation of an alternative, environmentally friendly tick management program that include practices such as habitat modification or establishing biological control. Ixodiphagus hookeri Howard is a tick-specific parasitoid wasp that predates on several species of ixodid ticks and could contribute to the control of the tick population. This work aimed to detect the presence of parasitoid wasps in ticks (Ixodidae) using genetic approaches. Several tick species of the genera Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, and Dermacentor, with a sympatric occurrence in the Slovak Karst National Park in southeastern Slovakia, were screened for the presence of wasps of the genus Ixodiphagus. The DNA of the parasitoids was detected in four tick species from three genera. This work presents the first molecular detection of parasitoids in two Dermacentor tick species, as well as the first molecular identification of Ixodiphagus wasps in Ixodes ricinus and Haemaphysalis concinna ticks from the Karst area. In the given area, it was observed that I. ricinus and H. concinna ticks are hyper-parasitized by wasps. Moreover, it was observed that wasps here can parasitize several tick species, some of which are of less significance for human and animal health (as they transmit fewer pathogens). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lyme borreliosis (LB) is the most prevalent tick-borne human infection in Europe, with increasing incidence during the latest decades. Abundant populations of Ixodes ricinus, the main vector of the causative agent, spirochetes from the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) complex, have been observed in urban and suburban areas of Europe, in general, and Slovakia, particularly. Understanding the spread of infectious diseases is crucial for implementing effective control measures. Global changes affect contact rates of humans and animals with Borrelia-infected ticks and increase the risk of contracting LB. The aim of this study was to investigate spatial and temporal variation in prevalence of Bbsl and diversity of its species in questing I. ricinus from three sites representing urban/suburban, natural and agricultural habitat types in Slovakia. Ixodes ricinus nymphs and adults were collected by dragging the vegetation in green areas of Bratislava town (urban/suburban habitat), in the Small Carpathians Mountains (natural habitat) (south-western Slovakia) and in an agricultural habitat at Rozhanovce in eastern Slovakia. Borrelia presence in ticks was detected by PCR and Bbsl species were identified by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. species in coinfected ticks were identified by reverse line blot. Significant spatial and temporal variability in prevalence of infected ticks was revealed in the explored habitats. The lowest total prevalence was detected in the urban/suburban habitat, whereas higher prevalence was found in the natural and agricultural habitat. Six Bbsl species were detected by RFLP in each habitat type —B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.), B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. valaisiana, B. lusitaniae and B. spielmanii. Coinfections accounted for 3% of the total infections, whereby B. kurtenbachii was identified by RLB and sequencing in mixed infection with B. burgdorferi s.s, B. garinii and B. valaisiana. This finding represents the first record of B. kurtenbachii in questing I. ricinus in Slovakia and Europe. Variations in the proportion of Bbsl species were found between nymphs and adults, between years and between habitat types. Spatial variations in prevalence patterns and proportion of Bbsl species were also confirmed between locations within a relatively short distance in the urban habitat. Habitat-related and spatial variations in Borrelia prevalence and distribution of Bbsl species are probably associated with the local environmental conditions and vertebrate host spectrum. Due to the presence of Borrelia species pathogenic to humans, all explored sites can be ranked as areas with high epidemiological risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study of ticks on wildlife was carried out in the area of Levice, Bratislava, Stupava, and Vrbovce (southwestern Slovakia) during 2021 and 2022. Overall, 512 ticks were collected from 51 individuals of six wild mammalian species. Eight tick species were identified, namely Dermacentor reticulatus, D. marginatus, Haemaphysalis inermis, H. concinna, Ixodes ricinus, I. hexagonus, and two Ixodes spp. Ixodes hexagonus were collected from northern white-breasted hedgehogs (Erinaceus roumanicus), females belonging to Ixodes spp. were collected from red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and nymphs from European badger (Meles meles). Ixodes hexagonus and the Ixodes spp. were identified morphologically and molecularly based on sequences of fragments of two mitochondrial genes, COI and 16S rRNA. Molecular analysis of Ixodes spp. confirmed the identity of Ixodes kaiseri Arthur, 1957 and I. canisuga (Johnston, 1849). Sequence analyses show that the I. kaiseri isolate from Slovakia is identical to I. kaiseri isolates from Romania, Poland, Germany, Turkey, and Croatia. We demonstrate for the first time the presence of I. kaiseri in Slovakia using both morphological and molecular methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We herein report the first occurrence of the tick Ixodes acuminatus in the Slovak Republic. Twenty-four I. acuminatus males, seven females and five nymphs were collected in Mus spicilegus nests (Rodentia) from three localities in south-western Slovakia. We repeatedly confirmed ticks in a total of nine M. spicilegus nests in this area during two years (2007 and 2009). Until that time, I. acuminatus had not been a part of the Slovakian tick fauna. Ticks have not been confirmed in the nests of M. spicilegus in the eastern part of Slovakia, even during parasitological examinations of many specimens of this rodent species (391 individuals) in different parts of Slovakia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ticks are ectoparasitic arthropods of great medical and veterinary importance and are important vectors of several pathogens that affect livestock, humans, and pets. Nevertheless, the requirements of individual tick species for climatic factors for tick survival and seasonality and the temporal dynamics of tick-borne pathogens have still not been sufficiently explored, especially in areas with the simultaneous occurrence of several tick species. When the occurrence and ecology of a single tick species are studied at the model site, all the factors which determine their occurrence must be taken into account during the study. Research at the site with the sympatric occurrence of different tick species eliminates the need to study all other factors (biotic and abiotic) that affect the occurrence of a given species in a particular locality because these species are present at the same site under the same environmental conditions. These locations are therefore highly appropriate for the research of seasonal activity that is related to climatic factors. As the host range of tick species overlaps at these locations, this is highly useful also for studying pathogen flow between individual tick species. In the present study, we evaluated the influence of the most important climatic conditions, such as temperature, relative humidity, and saturation deficit for each tick species individually. Except for the coldest parts of the year, we observed a year-round occurrence of individual tick species, with species-specific differences in temporal distribution. Ixodes ricinus was the most common species, followed by Haemaphysalis inermis, Dermacentor marginatus and D. reticulatus. Altogether, 660 ticks were examined for the presence of zoonotic bacteria and protozoans. The widest spectrum of tick-borne pathogens was detected in I. ricinus. The highest was the prevalence of spirochetes from Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. complex (12.43 %), with a predominance of B. garinii and B. afzelii, followed by Babesia spp. (7.73 %) represented by B. microti and B. venatorum. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was confirmed in 2.76 % of tested ticks. The presence of co-infection with Borrelia spp. and Babesia spp. was recorded in I. ricinus (1.1 %). We also confirmed the presence of borreliae in D. reticulatus and H. inermis for the first time in Slovakia. The results confirm that I. ricinus is epidemiologically the most important tick species in Slovakia and Central Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ticks are vector arthropods responsible for the transmission of several pathogenic agents that affect both human and animal health worldwide. In this study our objective was to analyse, using molecular tools, the bacterial community of Dermacentor reticulatus and Haemaphysalis inermis ticks collected in south-eastern Slovakia. Using real-time PCR, we identified the presence of Rickettsia spp. DNA at levels of 14/59 (23.72 %) and 29/173 (16.76 %) in D. reticulatus and H. inermis, respectively. In addition, using standard PCR and sequencing, we identified the presence of Rickettsia raoultii DNA in 13 ticks belonging to the two investigated species. Rickettsia raoultii blast results revealed an average identification percentage of 99.62 %. Following the results of this molecular study there is a possibility that D. reticulatus and H. inermis play a potential role in the transmission of R. raoultii. To prove the possibility of validity of this hypothesis, we suggest performing experimental models in future studies. Our results can serve as preliminary data for future transmission models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tick-borne viruses are responsible for various symptoms in humans and animals, ranging from simple fever to neurological disorders or haemorrhagic fevers. The Kemerovo virus (KEMV) is a tick-borne orbivirus, and it has been suspected to be responsible for human encephalitis cases in Russia and central Europe. It has been isolated from Ixodes persulcatus and Ixodes ricinus ticks. In a previous study, we assessed the vector competence of I. ricinus larvae from Slovakia for KEMV, using an artificial feeding system. In the current study, we used the same system to infect different tick population/species, including I. ricinus larvae from France and nymphs from Slovakia, and I. persulcatus larvae from Russia. We successfully confirmed the first two criteria of vector competence, namely, virus acquisition and trans-stadial transmission, for both tick species that we tested. The estimated infection rates of engorged and moulted ticks suggest specificities between viral strains and tick species/developmental stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Borrelia miyamotoi, recurrent fever borrelia, pathogenic to humans, has been found recently in Ixodes ricinus ticks. There is still little information about its circulation in nature and potential local impact on human health as well as the occurrence in natural localities. In our study, a total of 1609 ticks (745 nymphs, 358 females and 506 males) collected from different localities in eastern Slovakia were analysed using a polymerase chain reaction targeting a gene encoding glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase (glpQ), which is specific to the Borrelia species in the relapsing fever group. B. miyamotoi was found in 3 nymphs, 6 females and 9 males of quested I. ricinus ticks. Although no human case of infection with B. miyamotoi has been reported in Slovakia yet, its presence needs to be studied to obtain knowledge regarding the prevalence and the distribution of this human pathogen in questing ticks and to increase medical healthcare awareness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Distribution and biology of Pholeoixodes ticks is not very well understood. The goal of the study was to collect new data on the Pholeoixodes tick occurrence in Slovakia. Methods: Tick infestation of red foxes in the regions of Košice, Prešov, Bratislava and Žilina was studied during the period 2017–2018. Ticks were collected from the fur of animals using tweezers and identified using appropriate keys. In total, 146 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were investigated. Results: In total, 39 (26.7%) of animals were found to be infected with ticks from five species. Pholeoixodes ticks were found on 13 (3.4%) of the foxes: Ixodes hexagonus (Leach, 1815) on 5 specimens (3.4%), in the Košice, Prešov and Žilina regions; I. crenulatus (Koch, 1844) on 8 specimens (5.5%) in the Prešov and Bratislava regions; Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus, 1758) collected from 25 (17.2%) foxes in every locality; Dermacentor reticulatus (Fabricius, 1794) from 5 foxes (3.4%) in the Košice, Prešov and Žilina regions; Haemaphysalis concinna (Koch, 1844), from 4 foxes (2.8%) from the Košice region. Conclusions: Ixodes hexagonus has been previously recorded in Slovakia. However, this is the first finding of I. crenulatus in the country. The morphological features of the I. crenulatus specimens found in Slovakia were identical to those of ticks described in Poland and descriptions given in identification keys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacteria belonging to the genus Rickettsia are known as causative agents of vector-borne zoonotic diseases, such as spotted fevers, epidemic typhus and endemic typhus. Different species of ticks, mites and fleas could act as reservoirs and arthropod vectors of different pathogenic Rickettsia species. The aim of this work was to establish active surveillance of Rickettsia spp. in mites, ticks and fleas collected from small mammals (rodents and shrews) in Eastern Slovakia. A total of 964 animal ear biopsies, 871 mites, 667 ticks and 743 fleas were collected from small mammals in the Košice region, Eastern Slovakia. All specimens were identified using specialized taxonomic keys, and were conserved in ethanol until DNA extraction was performed. After DNA extraction, identification of Rickettsia species was performed by PCR-based methods. The total prevalence of rickettsiae from ear biopsies was 4.6% (95% CI, 3.2–5.9), in tested mites 9.3% (95% CI, 7.4–11.2), 17.2% (95% CI, 14.3–20.1) in I. ricinus ticks and 3.5% (95% CI, 2.2–4.8) in fleas. Sequence analysis of the partial gltA gene and Rickettsia helvetica-, Rickettsia slovaca-, Rickettsia raoultii- species specific real-time PCR tests revealed the presence of R. helvetica, R. slovaca, unidentified Rickettsia and rickettsial endosymbionts. These pathogenic and symbiotic species were confirmed in the following ectoparasite species—Laelaps jettmari, Haemogamasus nidi, Laelaps agilis and Eulaelaps stabularis mites, Ixodes ricinus ticks, Ctenophthalmus solutus, C. assimilis and Megabothris turbidus fleas infesting host—Apodemus agrarius, A. flavicollis, Microtus arvalis and Myodes glareolus small mammals. These results confirm the circulation of R. helvetica, R. slovaca, unidentified Rickettsia and rickettsial endosymbionts in mites, ticks and fleas collected on small mammals in the Košice region, Eastern Slovakia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ixodes ricinus is vector in the transmission of many important infectious diseases in human and animals. There is still minimal information available on the bacterial agents associated with ticks found in Slovakia. We performed a survey of the bacterial communities associated with Ixodes ricinus collected from forest area near a great city aglomeration. Bacterial 16S rRNA hypervariable region amplicon libraries prepared from the Ixodes ricinus females were sequenced on Illumina MiSeq platform. We detected a total of 107 bacterial genera and order Clostridiales and class Bacilli (with more than 100 reads). Dominant taxa included the tick endosymbionts e.g. spotted fever group (Rickettsia 21998 reads) and Coxiella (10715 reads). Second dominant species was mycoplasma Spiroplasma ixodetis (9554 reads). Dominant enviromental soil bacteria were Pseudomonas (6741 reads), Nocardiodes (4753 reads), Brevundimonas (2797 reads), Devosia (2797 reads) Aureimonas (1398 reads), Actinomycetospora (964 reads), Terrimonas (962 reads), Pedobacter (1139 reads), Methylobacterium (956 reads), Rhodococcus (945 reads), Williamsia (832 reads), Rhizobium (787 reads), Mesorhizobium (631 reads), Rhizobium (602 reads) and Spirosoma (486 reads) . Firmicutes were only 280 reads with 151 reads of Clostridia and 128 reads of Bacilli (include Staphylococcus and Bacillus ). The cultivation and Maldi Tof analysis revealed seven species of coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS) i.e., Staphylococcus epidermidis, S. capitis, S.haemolyticus, S.hominis, S. pasteuri, S.chromogenes, S.warneri and Micrococcus luteus. Antibiotic resistant CoNS with msrA and blaZ genes were detected. Five species of bacilli i.e. Bacillus cereus, B. licheniformis, B. thuringiensis and B. mycoides and two species of Brevibacillus i.e. B. parabrevis and B. agri were detected by Maldi Tof, also. The results of the next generation sequencing revealed a new look at the complexity of the Ixodes ricinus microbiome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Raising abundance of ticks and tick-borne diseases in Europe is the result of multiple factors including climate changes and human activities. Herein, we investigated the presence and seasonal activity of Ixodes ricinus ticks from 10 urban and suburban sites in two different geographical areas of southeastern and northeastern Slovakia during 2008-2010. Our aim was to study the abundance of ticks in correlation with the environmental factors and their infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Neoehrlichia mikurensis. Methods: Questing I. ricinus ticks were collected from ten urban and suburban sites in Eastern Slovakia. A total of 670 ticks were further analysed for the presence of B. burgdorferi s.l., A. phagocytophilum and N. mikurensis by molecular methods. Tick site and environmental relations were analysed using General Linear Models (LM). The differences between the number of Lyme borreliosis cases between the Košice and Bardejov regions during a ten-year period were tested by Wilcoxon matched pairs test. Results: In total, 2921 (1913 nymphs, 1008 adults) I. ricinus ticks were collected from 10 study sites during the main questing season. Tick activity and relative abundance differed between locations and months. Temperature and humidity were the main factors affecting the tick abundance and questing activity. Out of 670 examined ticks, 10.15% were infected with spirochetes from B. burgdorferi s.l. complex (represented by B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. valaisiana and B. burgdorferi s.s.), 2.69% with the A. phagocytophilum and 2.39% with N. mikurensis. The number of Lyme borreliosis cases per 100,000 inhabitants in the Bardejov region was significantly higher than in the Košice region. Conclusions: Our data indicate that the risk of infection with tick-borne pathogens in Eastern Slovakia is common since 15.2% of ticks were infected at least with one of the tested microorganisms. Even though the abundance of ticks was affected by the microclimatic conditions and the prevalence of pathogens differed between the habitats, the infection risk for humans is also affected by human activities leading to an increased contact with infected ticks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human granulocytic anaplasniosis (HGA) and Lyme borreliosis (LB) are tickborne and emerging infectious diseases caused by the Anaplasrna phagocytophilum and Borrelia hurgdorferi species. In Europe, including Slovakia, the principal vector of both pathogens is the common tick - Ixodes ricinus, in which double infections with these pathogens have been reported. The aim of our study was evidence of IgG antibodies against A. phagocylophilum in blood sera of humans with suspects LB from several Clin- ics of University Hospitals, and the evaluation of the possibility of B. burgdorferi and A. phagacylophiluin co-infection in examined patients. The serological method ELISA was used to detect IgM and lgG antibodies against B. burgdoiferi. Anti-A. phagocytophilum lgG antibodies were analyzed by the A. phagocytophilum Indirect lmmunofluorescence Antibody (IFA) IgG test. A total of 214 human samples (91 men, 123 women) were obtained from patients living in Košice town and in villages around Košice (Eastern Slovakia). IgG antibodies against A. phagocylophilurn were detected in 15 cases (6 men, 9 women), which represented 7.0% positivity. Two cases of the co-infection B. buugdorferi with AL phagocvtophilurn, which equals 0.93% of the total number, were found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study, 746 questing Ixodes (I.) ricinus ticks from eastern Slovakia and 187 ticks from southern Poland were investigated for infection with Borrelia (B.) burgdorferi sensu lato and different outer surface protein A (OspA) types by an improved restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the ospA gene. The method enables differentiation of both single and multiple infections with B. burgdorferi s.s. (OspA type 1), B. afzelii (OspA type 2), B. garinii (OspA types 3–8), B. valaisiana (subgroups I and II), B. lusitaniae, B. bissettii, and the recently described genospecies A14S. Broad heterogeneity in B. burgdorferi s.l. was found including all species and subtypes except for B. lusitaniae, B. bissettii, and genospecies A14S. Regional prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. varied between 8% and 22.5%. The most frequent species were B. garinii (45.4%) and, notably, B. burgdorferi s.s. (31.3%). I. ricinus nymphs harbored almost exclusively B. burgdorferi s.s. and B. garinii OspA type 4, while in adults a broad variety of B. burgdorferi s.l. types was found. Mixed infections were significantly more often in nymphs than in adult ticks. In all mixed infected nymphs, B. burgdorferi s.s. with OspA type 4 was present. These data strongly suggest that B. burgdorferi s.s. and B. garinii OspA type 4 are maintained in these areas by specific transmission cycles involving a so far undetermined vertebrate host which is frequently fed on by I. ricinus larvae. This improved method provides a reliable tool for epidemiological studies on the heterogeneity of B. burgdorferi species and OspA types, an important prerequisite for improved local risk assessment and for test- and vaccine development for Europe. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus as a typical arbovirus relies on two types of hosts for its survival: ticks act both as virus vectors and reservoir hosts, and vertebrates amplify the virus infection by acting as a source of infection for feeding ticks. Longitudinal monitoring of TBE virus in ticks and vertebrate hosts including humans over a period of 40 years resulted in the identification of the areas of Slovakia where TBE virus is endemic. These are concentrated to the western, southern, and eastern parts of the country. Even with recently identified foci there is no evidence that the size and location of the natural TBE foci have changed significantly during the last decades. Numbers of diagnosed hospitalised cases of TBE in Slovakia vary from less than 20 to almost 100 cases annually with 54–89 cases in recent years. A part of these cases (33 cases during the last 5 years) are alimentary infections after drinking of raw goat and sheep milk. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]