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Previous studies have noted substantial human–macaque interactions involving physical contact in Bali, Indonesia; Gibraltar; and Mt. Emei, China [Fuentes, American Journal of Primatology 68:880–896, 2006; Zhao, Tibetan macaques, visitors, and local people at Mt. Emei: problems and countermeasures. In: Paterson and Wallis, editor. Commensalism and conflict: the human–primate interface. Norman, OK: American Society of Primatologists. p 376–399, 2005]. The aim of this study was to conduct preliminary observations in order to begin to characterize interaction patterns between humans and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Singapore. Unlike Bali, Gibraltar, and Mt. Emei, Singapore occasionally enforces fines and penalties and engages in an education campaign in an effort to minimize physical contact between humans and macaques. Observers stationed at two sites in Singapore conducted 92 5 hr of observation that included 730 human–macaque interactions over 16 days. Data recorded include interaction characteristics, demographic and behavioral variables, presence of feeding by humans, and presence of automobiles. Although feeding by humans was relatively infrequent overall, it generally occurred most often by individuals in cars and when human children were present. Data analysis suggests that interactions involving physical contact between macaques and humans are rare in Singapore, in contrast to the findings from Bali, Gibraltar, and Mt. Emei. This low level of physical contact suggests a low risk of macaque–human pathogen transmission in Singapore. Am. J. Primatol. 70:879–883, 2008. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crab-eating, or long-tailed, macaques [ Macaca fascicularis (Raffles, 1821)] have been studied extensively throughout their distribution in South and South-east Asia. Despite this extensive body of research, the island population of long-tailed macaques from Singapore remains virtually undescribed. In the present study, we compare the morphometric variability and patterns of growth observed in a population sample from Singapore with a composite sample from Thailand, north of the Isthmus of Kra. The results of our analyses indicate that there are statistically significant differences between the two populations in adult size and shape. For both males and females, the Singapore population is smaller than the Thai population. Relative to body length, the Singapore macaques exhibit significantly longer tails, and, relative to cranial length, they exhibit significantly more narrow faces than the Thai macaques. Although levels of sexual dimorphism for most morphometric traits are very similar, indicating similar levels of male–male competition for females, the Singapore males exhibit a significantly larger testicular volume relative to body weight, suggestive of an alternative male reproductive strategy. In addition to adult somatometric size and shape, comparisons of growth patterns relative to age and body size reveal significant differences between the two population samples. Combined, these results suggest either that statistically significant differences in adult morphology and patterns of growth can occur in presumably reproductively cohesive subspecies, or the Singapore macaques may be taxonomically distinct. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 92, 675–694. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much of the primatology literature on stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ(13)C) and nitrogen (δ(15)N) has focused on African and New World species, with comparatively little research published on Asian primates. Here we present hair δ(13)C and δ(15)N isotope values for a sample of 33 long-tailed macaques from Singapore. We evaluate the suggestion by a previous researcher that forest degradation and biodiversity loss in Singapore have led to a decline in macaque trophic level. The results of our analysis indicated significant spatial variability in δ(13)C but not δ(15)N. The range of variation in δ(13)C was consistent with a diet based on C3 resources, with one group exhibiting low values consistent with a closed canopy environment. Relative to other macaque species from Europe and Asia, the macaques from Singapore exhibited a low mean δ(13)C value but mid-range mean δ(15)N value. Previous research suggesting a decline in macaque trophic level is not supported by the results of our study.

To determine whether nonhuman primates are infected with influenza viruses in nature, we conducted serologic and swab studies among macaques from several parts of the world. Our detection of influenza virus and antibodies to influenza virus raises questions about the role of nonhuman primates in the ecology of influenza.

Although the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) infects a third of all humans, little is known regarding the prevalence of mycobacterial infection in nonhuman primates (NHP). For more than a century, tuberculosis has been regarded as a serious infectious threat to NHP species. Advances in the detection of MTBC open new possibilities for investigating the effects of this poorly understood pathogen in diverse populations of NHP. Here, we report results of a cross-sectional study using well-described molecular methods to detect a nucleic acid sequence (IS6110) unique to the MTBC. Sample collection was focused on the oral cavity, the presumed route of transmission of MTBC. Buccal swabs were collected from 263 macaques representing 11 species in four Asian countries and Gibraltar. Contexts of contact with humans included free ranging, pets, performing monkeys, zoos, and monkey temples. Following DNA isolation from buccal swabs, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified IS6110 from 84 (31.9%) of the macaques. In general, prevalence of MTBC DNA was higher among NHP in countries where the World Health Organization reports higher prevalence of humans infected with MTBC. This is the first demonstration of MTBC DNA in the mouths of macaques. Further research is needed to establish the significance of this finding at both the individual and population levels. PCR of buccal samples holds promise as a method to elucidate the mycobacterial landscape among NHP, particularly macaques that thrive in areas of high human MTBC prevalence., (© 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Humans and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) interface in several locations in Singapore. We investigated six of these interface zones to assess the level of conflict between the two species. We observed macaque-to-human interactions and distributed questionnaires to residents and visitors of nature reserves. We observed an average of two macaque-to-human interactions per hour at the sites, which included affiliative or submissive behaviors (46.9%), aggression (19.1%), taking food and other items (18.5%) searching bins, cars, and houses (13.4%), and nonaggressive contact (2.1%). Two-thirds of interactions occurred when a human was carrying food or food cues, and one-quarter occurred when a human provoked macaques. Only 8% of interactions occurred without a clear human-triggered context. Our interview showed one-third of respondents experienced nuisance problems from macaques. They had items taken from them (50.5%) and received threats (31.9%). Residents reported more nuisance problems than visitors, and their perceptions toward macaques differed. Residents were more aware of the consequences of food provisioning and that there were regulations against feeding. Residents fed macaques less and held more negative sentiments toward macaques. Nearly half of the interviewed people held neutral attitudes toward macaques and only 26.2% of respondents thought conflict with macaques warranted urgent action. Nearly two-thirds of the respondents supported education programs to ameliorate human-macaque conflict, and less than 15% supported removing or eradicating macaques. 87.6% felt that it is importance to conserve and protect macaques. Our results show that human-macaque conflict exists in Singapore, but that it may not be severe. Human behavior is largely responsible for macaque-to-human interactions, and thus could be lessened with management of human behavior in interface zones (i.e. restrict food carrying and provocation). Moreover, our interviews shows people living in Singapore value macaques, do not wish them entirely removed, prefer education-based solutions, and consider conservation and protection of them important.

Measles is a respiratory virus that is endemic to humans. Human-nonhuman primate (NHP) transmission of the measles virus has been shown to cause significant morbidity and mortality in NHP populations. We investigated serological evidence of exposure to measles virus in two free-ranging populations of macaques at the Bukit Timah (BTNR) and Central Catchment Nature (CCNR) reserves in Singapore and the Swoyambhu Temple in Katmandu, Nepal. At BTNR/CCNR none of the 38 macaques (Macaca fascicularis) sampled were seropositive for antibodies to measles virus. In contrast, at Swoyambhu 100% (n = 39) of the macaques (M. mulatta) sampled were seropositive for antibodies to the measles virus. Here the contrasting seroprevalences of the two sites are analyzed using risk analysis. These case studies show how risk analysis can be used to approach the phenomenon of cross-species pathogen transmission., (Copyright 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)