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In this article, we use Lévi‐Strauss's (1962, The savage mind, University of Chicago Press) concept of 'bricolage' to explore informal food preparation among men in Scottish prisons. The art of 'making do with whatever is at hand', in innovative and creative ways, to give new functions to everyday items has recently been reimagined and applied to the field of food. It has been used to explore the practice of informal food networks in resource poor environments; investigate how small food businesses come up with new and innovative recipes ideas; and study the way Michelin‐starred chefs responded to the COVID‐19 pandemic through philanthropic activities. Our aim is to use bricolage as a lens through which to answer questions about whether more autonomy over food might contribute to overall health and wellbeing in prisons. Drawing on in‐depth empirical data from qualitative interviews with 20 men in Scottish prisons, we explore how bricolage is used to escape the monotony of prison‐issued meals and the tedium of the prison regime; counter threats to self and identity; create and maintain social relationships through joint enterprise and commensality; and create culinary experiences that afford a sense of control and normality in an environment synonymous with 'spoiled identity' (Goffman, 1961, Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates, Penguin.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Prisons had partial exemption from the UK's 2006/7 smoking bans in enclosed public spaces. They became one of the few workplaces with continuing exposure to second-hand smoke, given the high levels of smoking among people in custody. Despite the introduction of smoke-free prisons elsewhere, evaluations of such 'bans' have been very limited to date. Objective: The objective was to provide evidence on the process and impact of implementing a smoke-free policy across a national prison service. Design: The Tobacco in Prisons study was a three-phase, multimethod study exploring the periods before policy formulation (phase 1: pre announcement), during preparation for implementation (phase 2: preparatory) and after implementation (phase 3: post implementation). Setting: The study was set in Scotland's prisons. Participants: Participants were people in custody, prison staff and providers/users of prison smoking cessation services. Intervention: Comprehensive smoke-free prison rules were implemented across all of Scotland's prisons in November 2018. Main outcome measures: The main outcome measures were second-hand smoke levels, health outcomes and perspectives/experiences, including facilitators of successful transitions to smoke-free prisons. Data sources: The study utilised cross-sectional surveys of staff (total, n = 3522) and people in custody (total, n = 5956) in each phase; focus groups and/or one-to-one interviews with staff (n = 237 across 34 focus groups; n = 38 interviews), people in custody (n = 62 interviews), providers (n = 103 interviews) and users (n = 45 interviews) of prison smoking cessation services and stakeholders elsewhere (n = 19); measurements of second-hand smoke exposure (e.g. 369,208 minutes of static measures in residential areas at three time points); and routinely collected data (e.g. medications dispensed, inpatient/outpatient visits). Results: Measures of second-hand smoke were substantially (≈ 90%) reduced post implementation, compared with baseline, largely confirming the views of staff and people in custody that illicit smoking is not a major issue post ban. Several factors that contributed to the successful implementation of the smoke-free policy, now accepted as the 'new normal', were identified. E-cigarette use has become common, was recognised (by both staff and people in custody) to have facilitated the transition and raises new issues in prisons. The health economic analysis (lifetime model) demonstrated that costs were lower and the number of quality-adjusted life-years was larger for people in custody and staff in the 'with smoke-free' policy period than in the 'without' policy period, confirming cost-effectiveness against a £20,000 willingness-to-pay threshold. Limitations: The ability to triangulate between different data sources mitigated limitations with constituent data sets. Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first study internationally to analyse the views of prison staff and people in custody; objective measurements of second-hand smoke exposure and routine health and other outcomes before, during and after the implementation of a smoke-free prison policy; and to assess cost-effectiveness. The results are relevant to jurisdictions considering similar legislation, whether or not e-cigarettes are permitted. The study provides a model for partnership working and, as a multidimensional study of a national prison system, adds to a previously sparse evidence base internationally. Future work: Priorities are to understand how to support people in custody in remaining smoke free after release from prison, and whether or not interventions can extend benefits to their families; to evaluate new guidance supporting people wishing to reduce or quit vaping; and to understand how prison vaping practices/cultures may strengthen or weaken long-term reductions in smoking. Study registration: This study is registered as Research Registry 4802. Funding: This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme and will be published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 10, No. 1. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: E-cigarettes were one measure introduced to help people in custody (PiC) to prepare for and cope with implementation of comprehensive smokefree policies in Scottish prisons. Our earlier study explored experiences of vaping when e-cigarettes were first introduced and most participants were dual tobacco and e-cigarette users. Here we present findings of a subsequent study of vaping among a different sample of PiC when use of tobacco was prohibited in prison, and smokefree policy had become the norm.Methods: Twenty-eight qualitative interviews were conducted with PiC who were current or former users of e-cigarettes in prison, 6-10 months after implementation of a smokefree policy. Data were managed and analyzed using the framework approach.Results: PiC reported that vaping helped with mandated smoking abstinence. However, findings suggest that some PiC may be susceptible to heavy e-cigarette use potentially as a consequence of high nicotine dependence and situational factors such as e-cigarette product choice and availability in prisons; issues with nicotine delivery; prison regimes; and use of e-cigarettes for managing negative emotions. These factors may act as barriers to cutting down or stopping use of e-cigarettes by PiC who want to make changes due to dissatisfaction with vaping or lack of interest in continued use of nicotine, cost, and/or health concerns.Conclusions: E-cigarettes helped PiC to cope with smokefree rules, although concerns about e-cigarette efficacy, cost, and safety were raised. PiC may desire or benefit both from conventional smoking cessation programs and from interventions to support reduction, or cessation, of vaping.Implications: Findings highlight successes, challenges, and potential solutions in respect of use of e-cigarettes to cope with mandated smoking abstinence in populations with high smoking prevalence and heavy nicotine dependence. Experiences from prisons in Scotland may be of particular interest to health and/or justice services in other jurisdictions, with similar legislation on e-cigarettes to the United Kingdom, who are planning for institutional smokefree policies in their prisons or inpatient mental health settings in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Scotland is one of the few countries in which e-cigarettes were available in prisons before the introduction of a comprehensive national smokefree policy, to assist in its implementation. This qualitative study explores the initial views and experiences of vaping in this specific context, from the perspective of people in custody (prisoners).Aims and Methods: Twenty-eight people in custody were interviewed approximately 1-2 months after rechargeable e-cigarettes were made available in prisons and 2-5 weeks before implementation of a smokefree policy. Data were thematically analyzed to identify the range and diversity of views and experiences.Results: Participants expressed support for e-cigarettes in preparation for the smokefree policy, describing their symbolic and practical value in this context. Uptake of vaping was strongly influenced by the need for participants to manage without tobacco in the near future. Participants evaluated their initial vaping experiences, either positively or negatively, in relation to the utility of e-cigarettes for mandated smoking abstinence and in providing satisfaction, pleasure, and novelty. Participant views on several issues related to e-cigarette use, both specific to the prison population (product choice and cost) and more generally (safety and long-term use), are explored.Conclusions: Our findings suggest possible benefits of e-cigarettes as one means of supporting smokefree policy in a population with many smokers. They also point to potential challenges posed by vaping in prisons and smokefree settings caring for similar populations. There is a need for ongoing measures to maximize the health benefits of smokefree settings and for further research on vaping in situations of enforced abstinence.Implications: To our knowledge, no published studies have explored views and experiences of vaping in prison, when rechargeable vapes were new and the removal of tobacco was imminent. The results can inform tobacco control policy choices, planning and implementation in prisons and similar settings. In prison systems that permitting vaping, it is important that other measures (eg, information campaigns and nicotine dependence services) are implemented concurrently to minimize potential risks to the health or personal finances of people in custody. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Prisons in Scotland were one of the few workplaces exempt from the 2006 comprehensive smoking ban in indoor public places, excluding the prison workforce from the health benefits of smokefree workplaces. The November 2018 introduction of comprehensive restrictions on smoking in Scottish prisons aimed to protect prison staff and people in custody from the harmful impacts of second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure. This study presents SHS exposure data gathered after smokefree policy implementation and compares these with data gathered during and before policy development. Methods Dylos DC1700 monitors were used to measure concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) derived from SHS across Scotland's 15 prisons. Six days of fixed-site monitoring (09.00 22 May 2019 to 09.00 28 May 2019) were conducted in residential halls in each prison 6 months post-smokefree policy implementation. Prison staff task-based measurements were conducted to assess concentrations of SHS in various locations (e.g. gyms and workshops) and during specific activities (e.g. cell searches, maintenance, and meal service). Utilizing the fixed-site monitoring data, typical daily PM2.5 exposure profiles were constructed for the prison service and time-weighted average (TWA) exposure concentrations were estimated for the typical shift patterns of residential staff pre- and post-smokefree policy implementation. Staff perceptions of changes to SHS exposure were assessed using online surveys. Results Analysis of both fixed-site and mobile task-based PM2.5 measurements showed the smokefree policy implementation was successful in reducing SHS exposures across the Scottish prison estate. Measured PM2.5 in residential halls declined markedly; median fixed-site concentrations reduced by more than 91% compared with measures in 2016 before policy announcement. The changes in the TWA concentrations across shifts (over 90% decrease across all shifts) and task-based measurements (89% average decrease for high-exposure tasks) provide evidence that prison staff exposure to SHS has significantly reduced. Following smokefree policy implementation, the majority of staff reported no longer being exposed to SHS at work. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive international study to objectively measure SHS levels before, during, and after implementation of a smokefree policy across a country's prison system. The findings confirm that such a policy change can be successfully implemented to eliminate occupational exposures to SHS. The results are highly relevant for other jurisdictions considering changes to prison smoking legislation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In jurisdictions permitting prisoner smoking, rates are high (c75%), with smoking embedded in prison culture, leading to secondhand smoke exposures among staff and prisoners and challenges for smoking cessation. Momentum is building to ban smoking in prisons, but research on staff and prisoner views is lacking. We address this gap, providing evidence on staff and prisoner views throughout all Scottish prisons.Methods: Data were collected prior to the announcement of a (November 2018) prison smoking ban throughout Scotland. Mixed methods were used: surveys of staff (online, N = 1271, ~27%) and prisoners (questionnaire, N = 2512, ~34%); 17 focus groups and two paired interviews with staff in 14 prisons.Results: Staff were more positive than prisoners about bans and increased smoking restrictions, although prisoner views were more favorable should e-cigarettes be permitted. Nonsmokers were more positive than smokers. Whilst 74% staff and 22% prisoners agreed bans were a good idea, both groups acknowledged implementation and enforcement challenges. Staff views were influenced by beliefs about: acceptability of the policy in principle and whether/how bans could be achieved. Although some voiced doubts about smoke-free policies, staff likened a ban to other operational challenges. Staff raised concerns around needs for appropriate measures, resources and support, adequate lead-in time, and effective communication prior to a ban.Conclusion: We recommend that regular and open opportunities for dialogue within and between different stakeholder groups are created when preparing for prison smoking bans and that specific measures to address staff and prisoner concerns are incorporated into plans to create and maintain smoke-free environments.Implications: To our knowledge, this study is the first to research staff and prisoner views across a whole prison system prior to implementation of smoke-free policies. The results highlight potential challenges and suggest measures, which might help to maximize the success of bans. Our results are relevant for prison service managers responsible for the forthcoming introduction of a ban in Scottish prisons (November 2018) and for other prison systems and comparable institutions planning smoke-free initiatives. Given that prison smoking bans may be contentious, we recommend creating regular and open opportunities for dialogue between stakeholders when preparing for and maintaining smoke-free environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION Policy-makers and practitioners need to understand characteristics associated with support for smoking restrictions to identify both potential allies and groups requiring particular support/targeted communication in the face of restrictions. Using data from prison staff and prisoners, we explored the structure and correlates of opinions relating to prison smoking bans. METHODS Questionnaires were completed by staff (online, N=1271; 27% return) and prisoners (paper-based, N=2512; 34%) in all 15 Scottish prisons in 2016-17. At that time, prisoners could smoke in their own cells and during outdoor recreation; staff smoking was prohibited anywhere on prison grounds. Staff and prisoner questionnaires included identical/very similar questions about opinions on smoking in prisons and prison smoking bans, own smoking behaviour, health and sociodemographic details. We also measured in every prison fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as a proxy for secondhand smoke (SHS) levels. RESULTS Principal components analysis identified two factors: 'Positive about bans' (higher scores among staff) and 'Bans will be difficult' (higher scores among prisoners). In multivariable analyses, 'Positive about bans' was associated with: not smoking (both staff and prisoners), better general health, more respiratory symptoms and working in an operational role among staff; and no asthma, more sensory symptoms, higher educational level and status/release date among prisoners. 'Bans will be difficult' was associated with: fewer sensory symptoms and lower prison SHS levels among staff and being a smoker among prisoners. In smoker-only analyses, heavier smokers were less positive about bans and more likely to believe bans will be difficult. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest it is possible to be positive about prison smoking bans whilst also recognising and/or concerned about potential operational difficulties, and that these opinions are associated with several characteristics additional to smoker status. Support for future prison bans may be stronger if staff have access to objective SHS exposure measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Second-hand tobacco smoke (SHS) is an avoidable and harmful exposure in the workplace but >25 000 prison staff continue to be exposed on a daily basis in the UK and many more worldwide. SHS exposures in prisons are incompletely understood but may be considerable given the large proportion of smoking prisoners and limited ventilation. This study characterized the exposure of prison staff to SHS in all 15 prisons in Scotland using multiple methods. Exposure assessment strategies included 6-day area measurement of fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) and airborne nicotine in each prison together with short (30-minute) measurements of PM2.5 covering a range of locations/activities. Pre- and post-shift saliva samples were also gathered from non-smoking staff and analysed for cotinine to estimate exposure. There was evidence of exposure to SHS in all prisons from the results of PM2.5 and nicotine measurements. The salivary cotinine results from a sub-sample of non-smoking workers indicated SHS exposures of similar magnitude to those provided by the 6-day area measurements of PM2.5. There was a high degree of exposure variability with some locations/activities involving exposure to SHS concentrations that were comparable to those measured in bars in Scotland prior to smoke-free legislation in 2006. The median shift exposure to SHS-PM2.5 was ~20 to 30 µg m-3 and is broadly similar to that experienced by someone living in a typical smoking home in Scotland. This is the most comprehensive assessment of prison workers' exposure to SHS in the world. The results are highly relevant to the development of smoke-free policies in prisons and should be considered when deciding on the best approach to provide prison staff with a safe and healthy working environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Research on predictors of young children's psychosocial well-being currently relies on adult-reported outcomes. This study investigated whether early family circumstances and parenting predict 7-year-olds' subjective well-being.Methods: Information on supportive friendships, liking school and life satisfaction was obtained from 7-year-olds in one Growing Up in Scotland birth cohort in 2012-2013 (N = 2869). Mothers provided information on early childhood factors from 10 to 34 months, parenting (dysfunctional parenting, home learning and protectiveness) from 46 to 70 months, and 7-year-olds' adjustment. Multivariable path models explored associations between early childhood factors, parenting and 7-year-olds' subjective well-being. Supplementary analyses compared findings with those for mother-reported adjustment.Results: In a model of early childhood factors, maternal distress predicted less supportive friendships and lower life satisfaction (coefficients -0.12), poverty predicted less supportive friendships (-0.09) and remote location predicted all outcomes (-0.20 to -0.27). In a model with parenting added, dysfunctional parenting predicted all outcomes (-10 to -0.16), home learning predicted liking school (0.11) and life satisfaction (0.08), and protectiveness predicted life satisfaction (0.08). Effects of maternal distress were fully mediated, largely via dysfunctional parenting, while home learning mediated negative effects of low maternal education. Direct effects of poverty and remote location remained. Findings for mother-reported child adjustment were broadly similar.Conclusions: Unique prospective data show parenting and early childhood impact 7-year-olds' subjective well-being. They underline the benefits for children of targeting parental mental health and dysfunctional parenting, and helping parents develop skills to support children at home and school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is unclear why trajectories of internalising problems vary between groups of young children. This is the first attempt in the United Kingdom to identify and explain different trajectories of internalising problems from 46 to 94 months. Using both mother- and child-reported data from the large Growing Up in Scotland (GUS) birth cohort (N = 2901; male N = 1497, female N = 1404), we applied growth mixture modelling and multivariable multinomial regression models. Three trajectories were identified: low-stable, high-decreasing and medium-increasing. There were no gender differences in trajectory shape, membership, or importance of covariates. Children from both elevated trajectories shared several early risk factors (low income, poor maternal mental health, poor partner relationship, pre-school behaviour problems) and school-age covariates (low mother-child warmth and initial school maladjustment) and reported fewer supportive friendships at 94 months. However, there were also differences in covariates between the two elevated trajectories. Minority ethnic status and pre-school conduct problems were more strongly associated with the high-decreasing trajectory; and covariates measured after school entry (behaviour problems, mother-child conflict and school maladjustment) with the medium-increasing trajectory. This suggests a greater burden of early risk for the high-decreasing trajectory, and that children with moderate early problem levels were more vulnerable to influences after school transition. Our findings largely support the sparse existing international evidence and are strengthened by the use of child-reported data. They highlight the need to identify protective factors for children with moderate, as well as high, levels of internalising problems at pre-school age, but suggest different approaches may be required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Evidence is inconsistent as to whether or not there are health inequalities in adolescence according to socio-economic position (SEP) and whether or when they emerge in early adulthood. Despite the large health inequalities literature, few studies have simultaneously compared the relative importance of 'health selection' versus 'social causation' at this life-stage. This study followed a cohort through the youth-adult transition to: (1) determine whether, and if so, when, health inequalities became evident according to both class of origin and current SEP; (2) compare the importance of health selection and social causation mechanisms; and (3) investigate whether these phenomena vary by gender.Methods: Data are from a West-of-Scotland cohort, surveyed five times between age 15 (in 1987, N=1,515, response=85%) and 36. Self-reported physical and mental health were obtained at each survey. SEP was based on parental occupational class at 15, a combination of own education or occupational status at 18 and own occupational class (with an additional non-employment category) at older ages. In respect of when inequalities emerged, we used the relative index of inequality to examine associations between both parental and own current SEP and health at each age. In respect of mechanisms, path models, including SEP and health at each age, investigated both inter and intra-generational paths from SEP to health ('causation') and from health to SEP ('selection'). Analyses were conducted separately for physical and mental health, and stratified by gender.Results: Associations between both physical and mental health and parental SEP were non-significant at every age. Inequalities according to own SEP emerged for physical health at 24 and for mental health at 30. There was no evidence of selection based on physical health, but some evidence of associations between mental health in early adulthood and later SEP (intra-generational selection). Paths indicated intra-generational (males) and inter-generational (females) social causation of physical health inequalities, and intra-generational (males and females) and inter-generational (females) social causation of mental health inequalities.Conclusions: The results suggest complex and reciprocal relationships between SEP and health and highlight adolescence and early adulthood as a sensitive period for this process, impacting on future life-chances and health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current theorizing and evidence suggest that parenting stress might be greater among parents from both low and high socioeconomic positions (SEP) compared with those from intermediate levels because of material hardship among parents of low SEP and employment demands among parents of high SEP. However, little is known about how this socioeconomic variation in stress relates to the support that parents receive. This study explored whether variation in maternal parenting stress in a population sample was associated with support deficits. To obtain a clearer understanding of support deficits among mothers of high and low education, we distinguished subgroups according to mothers' migrant and single-parent status. Participants were 5,865 mothers from the Growing Up in Scotland Study, who were interviewed when their children were 10 months old. Parenting stress was greater among mothers with either high or low education than among mothers with intermediate education, although it was highest for those with low education. Support deficits accounted for around 50% of higher stress among high- and low-educated groups. Less frequent grandparent contact mediated parenting stress among both high- and low-educated mothers, particularly migrants. Aside from this common feature, different aspects of support were relevant for high- compared with low-educated mothers. For high-educated mothers, reliance on formal childcare and less frequent support from friends mediated higher stress. Among low-educated mothers, smaller grandparent and friend networks and barriers to professional parent support mediated higher stress. Implications of differing support deficits are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amidst concerns that young people's mental health is deteriorating, it is important to explore their understandings of symptoms of mental health problems and beliefs around help seeking. Drawing on focus group data from Scottish school pupils, we demonstrate how they understood symptoms of mental health problems and how their characterisations of these symptoms as 'rare' and 'weird' informed participants' perceptions that peers, teachers and parents would respond to disclosure in stigmatising ways. Consequently, participants suggested that they would delay or avoid disclosing symptoms of mental health problems. We highlight subtle gender and age differences and outline implications for policy and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As the promotion of alcohol and tobacco to young people through direct advertising has become increasingly restricted, there has been greater interest in whether images of certain behaviours in films are associated with uptake of those behaviours in young people. Associations have been reported between exposure to smoking images in films and smoking initiation, and between exposure to film alcohol images and initiation of alcohol consumption, in younger adolescents in the USA and Germany. To date no studies have reported on film images of recreational drug use and young people's own drug use. Methods: Cross sectional multivariable logistic regression analysis of data collected at age 19 (2002-4) from a cohort of young people (502 boys, 500 girls) previously surveyed at ages 11 (in 1994-5), 13 and 15 in schools in the West of Scotland. Outcome measures at age 19 were: exceeding the 'sensible drinking' guidelines ('heavy drinkers') and binge drinking (based on alcohol consumption reported in last week), and ever use of cannabis and of 'hard' drugs. The principle predictor variables were an estimate of exposure to images of alcohol, and of drug use, in films, controlling for factors related to the uptake of substance use in young people. Results: A third of these young adults (33%) were classed as 'heavy drinkers' and half (47%) as 'binge drinkers' on the basis of their previous week's consumption. Over half (56%) reported ever use of cannabis and 13% ever use of one or more of the 'hard' drugs listed. There were linear trends in the percentage of heavy drinkers (p = .018) and binge drinkers (p = 0.012) by film alcohol exposure quartiles, and for ever use of cannabis by film drug exposure (p = .000), and for ever use of 'hard' drugs (p = .033). The odds ratios for heavy drinking (1.56, 95% CI 1.06-2.29 comparing highest with lowest quartile of film alcohol exposure) and binge drinking (1.59, 95% CI 1.10-2.30) were attenuated by adjustment for gender, social class, family background (parental structure, parental care and parental control), attitudes to risk-taking and rule-breaking, and qualifications (OR heavy drinking 1.42, 95% CI 0.95-2.13 and binge drinking 1.49, 95% CI 1.01-2.19), and further so when adjusting for friends' drinking status (when the odds ratios were no longer significant). A similar pattern was seen for ever use of cannabis and 'hard' drugs (unadjusted OR 1.80, 95% CI 1.24-2.62 and 1.57, 95% CI 0.91-2.69 respectively, 'fully' adjusted OR 1.41 (0.90-2.22 and 1.28 (0.66- 2.47) respectively). Conclusions: Despite some limitations, which are discussed, these cross-sectional results add to a body of work which suggests that it is important to design good longitudinal studies which can determine whether exposure to images of potentially health-damaging behaviours lead to uptake of these behaviours during adolescence and early adulthood, and to examine factors that might mediate this relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper aims to explain previously described increases in self-reported psychological distress between 1987 and 2006 among samples identical in respect of age (15 years), school year and geographical location (West of Scotland). Such increases might be explained by changes in exposure (changes in levels of risk or protective factors) and/or by changes in vulnerability (changes in the relationship between risk/protective factors and psychological distress). Key areas of social change over this time period allow identification of potential explanatory factors, categorised as economic, family, educational, values and lifestyle and represented by variables common to each study. Psychological distress was measured via the 12-item General Health Questionnaire, Likert scored. Analyses were conducted on those with complete data on all variables (N = 3276 of 3929), and separately for males and females. Between 1987 and 2006, levels of almost every potential explanatory factor changed in line with general societal trends. Associations between explanatory factors and GHQ tended to be stronger among females, and at the later date. The strongest associations were with worries, arguments with parents, and, at the later date, school disengagement. The factors which best accounted for the increase in mean GHQ between 1987 and 2006 were arguments with parents, school disengagement, worry about school and, for females, worry about family relationships, reflecting both increasing exposure and vulnerability to these risk factors. A number of limitations to our analysis can be identified. However, our results reinforce the conclusions of others in highlighting the role of family and educational factors as plausible explanations for increases in young people’s psychological distress. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Encouraging condom use among young women is a major focus of HIV/STI prevention efforts but the degree to which they see themselves as being at risk limits their use of the method. In this paper, we examine the extent to which condom use has become normalised among young women. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 year old women from eastern Scotland (N=20). Purposive sampling was used to select a heterogeneous group with different levels of sexual experience and from different social backgrounds. All of the interviewees had used (male) condoms but only three reported consistent use. The rest had changed to other methods, most often the pill, though they typically went back to using condoms occasionally. Condoms were talked about as the most readily available contraceptive method, and were most often the first contraceptive method used. The young women had ingrained expectations of use, but for most, these norms centred only on their new or casual partners, with whom not using condoms was thought to be irresponsible. Many reported negative experiences with condoms, and condom dislike and failure were common, lessening trust in the method. Although the sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention provided by condoms was important, this was seen as additional, and secondary, to pregnancy prevention. As the perceived risks of STIs lessened in relationships with boyfriends, so did condom use. The promotion of condoms for STI prevention alone fails to consider the wider influences of partners and young women's negative experiences of the method. Focusing on the development of condom negotiation skills alone will not address these issues. Interventions to counter dislike, method failure, and the limits of the normalisation of condom use should be included in STI prevention efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective is to examine the association between the amount of smoking seen in films and current smoking in young adults living in the west of Scotland in the UK. Cross-sectional analyses (using multivariable logistic regression) of data collected at age 19 (2002-04) from a longitudinal cohort originally surveyed at age 11 (1994-95) were conducted. The main outcome measure is smoking at age 19. No association was found between the number of occurrences of smoking estimated to have been seen in films (film smoking exposure) and current (or ever) smoking in young adults. This lack of association was unaffected by adjustment for predictors of smoking, including education, risk-taking orientation and smoking among peers. There was no association between film smoking exposure and smoking behaviour for any covariate-defined subgroup. Associations have been found between film smoking exposure and smoking initiation in younger adolescents in the United States. In this study, conducted in Scotland, no similar association was seen, suggesting that there may be age or cultural limitations on the effects of film smoking exposure on smoking. The lack of association could be due to methodological issues or greater sophistication of older adolescents and young adults in interpreting media images or the greater ubiquity of real-life smoking instances in Scotland. If the latter, film smoking exposure could become a more important risk factor for smoking uptake and maintenants in older adolescents following the recent ban on smoking in public places in Scotland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among a west of Scotland cohort surveyed at ages 15 (1987), 18, 23 and 30, lifetime prevalence (ever use) of any drugs rose from 9% at 15 to 58% at 23, thereafter increasing little; past year ('current') use peaked at age 23 (35%). Cannabis-only rates increased most between ages 15 and 18; 'hard' drug use increased steadily with age. There was considerable transitory use, particularly among cannabis-only users and those initiating later. Neither initiation nor use of cannabis only or other drug(s) was raised among those of lower background social class. However, cannabis-only initiation between 18 and 23 years was most likely among those from non-manual backgrounds who had left school later and were in full time education at 18. Initiation of other drug(s) between 18 and 23 also showed some evidence of this 'student effect'. Measures which fail to distinguish different types of drug use, or the use of broad age bands, may obscure such relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine the relation of young people's personal income and parental social class with smoking from early to mid adolescence. Design: Longitudinal, school based, study of a cohort of 2586 eleven year-olds followed up at ages 13 and 15. Setting: West of Scotland. Participants: 93% baseline participation, reducing to 79% at age 15. Main outcome measures: Ever smoked (age 11), current and daily smoking (ages 13 and 15) and the proportion of income spent on tobacco (13 and 15) based on recommended retail prices of usual brands. Results: Strong independent effects of parental social class and personal income were found at 11 years, both reducing with age. The .higher incomes of lower class participants attenuated the social class effect on smoking at ages 11 and 13, but not at 15. Analysis within class groups showed variation in the effect of income on smoking, being strongest among higher class youths and weak or non-existent among lower class youths. This was despite the fact that the proportion of weekly income apparently spent on tobacco was greater among lower class youths. Conclusions: The results confirm the importance of personal income and parental social class for youth smoking, but they also show that personal income matters more for those from higher class backgrounds. This suggests both that lower class youths have greater access to tobacco from family and friends and to cheaper sources of cigarettes from illegal sources. This complicates the relation between fiscal policies and smoking and might have the unintended consequence of increasing class differentials in youth smoking rather than the reverse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Self-harm among young people in the UK is possibly increasing but little is known about the reasons young people give for cessation and their link with gender or employment status.Aims: To investigate self-harm in young people, prevalence, methods used, motivations for starting and ceasing, service use, and how these are related to gender, parental social class and current labour market position.Method: Population-based survey of 1258 18- to 20-year-olds living in the Central Clydeside Conurbation, Scotland.Results: Both past and current rates of self-harm were highest among those outside the labour market. This group was most likely to want to kill themselves and did not cite specialist mental health services as helpful in ceasing self-harm. Those in full-time education more often self-harmed for a brief time, mainly to reduce anxiety.Conclusions: Current labour market position was a stronger predictor than parental social class or gender for self-harm, and was linked to level of severity, motivation for starting and ceasing, and service utilisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is commonly assumed that young people's disposable income reflects the socioeconomic status of their family, those in more advantaged situations having more money than those who are disadvantaged. Plausible though this assumption is, evidence on the issue is surprisingly thin. Using data from a longitudinal study of young people in the West of Scotland, first surveyed aged 11 and followed up at ages 13 and 15, we examine the social distribution of pocket money and earnings from domestic and external work by reference to social class, material deprivation and several poverty indicators. The results show an inverse relationship between mean income and both social class and deprivation at each age, which at age 15 extends to each source of income. With respect to poverty indicators, the finding that 'poorer' children had more money at earlier ages did not extend to age 15. Further evidence on consumer attitudes and possessions shows that each is related to personal income while attitudes are not class related and consumer possessions increase with falling social class. The 'material paradox' that young people from poorer backgrounds have more money in their pockets than their richer counterparts has to be understood within a context of class and consumer culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Despite considerable evidence for psychological distress among children and young people who experience peer victimization, cross-sectional studies cannot determine the direction of the relationship. Several recent studies have examined associations between victimization and distress. The majority find evidence for both directions but do not arbitrate between them; only one prior study has attempted to do this. Aims. To use longitudinal data to: (1) test competing hypotheses about the direction of the victimization-depression association; (2) investigate gender differences in the resulting models. Sample. Data were obtained from a Scottish school-based cohort (N = 2,586). Methods. Self-completion questionnaires included a depression scale and questions on victimization at each age. Results. Despite shifts in and out of victim status, there was evidence of stability in both victimization and depression. Bivariate analyses showed positive relationships between victimization and depression. Structural equation modelling (SEM) showed that at age 13, this relationship was reciprocal, with a stronger path from victimization to depression than vice versa. However, at age 15, it was almost entirely due to a path from depression to victimization among boys. Models including cross-lagged paths fitted the data less well than those including simultaneous associations. Conclusions. Current policy focuses on victimization as a cause of distress; however, professionals should be aware that vulnerable children and young people are likely to be the targets of victimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until the 1990s, the literature on youth leisure characterized that of females as home-based, passive and largely absent from male-dominated subcultures. Contrasting with this, over the course of the 1990s, evidence emerged of increasing public visibility, reduced restrictions on activities and relatively greater increases in health-risk behaviours among females, together with suggestions of a domestification of leisure among males This paper uses data from two cohorts of 15 year olds in the same geographical area (the West of Scotland), separated by 12 years (1987 and 1999) to examine changes in the gender patterning of young people's leisure, use of public space and risk taking (as represented by substance use) over this time period. Gender differences in 'street-based' (previously more males) and 'conventional/safe' (previously more females) leisure disappeared over this period while male excesses in watching sports and playing computer games increased. At the same time, female levels of drinking and experience of illicit drugs reached, and those of smoking overtook, their male counterparts. Additional analyses showed that changes in leisure activities over time accounted in part for the changing gender patterns in substance use. The paper discusses how greater public visibility and increased risk-taking behaviours among females have resulted from the lifting of constraints of respectability on young women's life- styles. These changes have been rapid and have significance in both social and health terms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To report prevalence estimates of psychiatric disorder among Scottish adolescents using a self-administered computerized (Voice) version of the DISC. Method: A total of 1,860 15-year-olds (67%), participating in a school-based survey of health and lifestyles, completed selected modules of the Voice-DISC, producing DSM-IV diagnoses of (specific) anxiety disorders, eating disorders, depressive/dysthymic disorder, behavior disorders, and substance abuse/dependence. Results: Overall prevalence of any psychiatric diagnosis, including substance abuse/dependence, was 31%, reducing to 15% with strict impairment criteria. Anxiety disorders were more common in females, behavior disorders (except attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) in males. Comorbidity within major diagnostic categories was considerable; that between categories was lower, although high comorbidity between conduct disorder and substance abuse/dependence was found. Conclusions: Prevalence estimates are similar to those reported in other studies, although methodological problems limit comparisons. Of particular interest are the similar or higher rates of behavior disorders, especially conduct disorders, to those in studies involving multiple informants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tests the hypothesis of an emerging or increasing female excess in general ill-health and physical symptoms, as well as psychological distress, during early to mid-adolescence. Self-reported data on general health (longstanding illness and health in the last 12 months), recent symptoms (classified as ‘physical’ and ‘malaise’) and depressive mood were obtained from a large, Scottish, school-based cohort at ages 11, 13 and 15. Generally high levels of health problems at age 11 tended to increase with age, these increases being greater for females than males, not only in respect of depression and ‘malaise’ symptoms, but also limiting illness, ‘poor’ self-rated health, headaches, stomach problems and dizziness. The consequence, by age 15, is the emergence of a female excess in general ill-health and depressive mood, and a substantial strengthening of the small excess in both ‘physical’ and ‘malaise’ symptoms already apparent at 11 years. These findings are discussed in relation to explanations for the adult female excess in poorer health, and the emergence of a female excess of depression during adolescence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The extent to which young people's lifestyles are related to social class, their relationship with health behaviours, and variations in these relationships between countries are of central relevance to an assessment of the extent to which post-modern (global) influences have replaced those associated with traditional (local) social structures. A comparison between 15 year olds in Glasgow and Helsinki reveals a remarkably similar pattern of relationships. In both locations, involvement in commercial leisure was unrelated to class, as was sports/games in Glasgow, while conventional lifestyles (more middle class) and street-based lifestyles (more working class) were class associated. Furthermore, while lifestyles were strongly related to smoking, drinking and drug use, street-based and commercial leisure orientations elevating rates, sports/games reducing them, social class was of negligible consequence for health behaviours in both places. We conclude that, while there remains a link between social class and some lifestyles, notably in relation to street-based leisure, for the most part young people's lifestyles cut across class and national boundaries and have similar consequences for health behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main aim of this paper is to compare the association of family structure with outcomes for young people living in the West of Scotland (the Twenty-07 Study, N=1009) with their contemporaries living in Britain (the 1970 British Cohort Study N=1 1615) in the mid-1980s. A wide range of measures were considered using educational achievement to represent life-chances, smoking and drinking to represent life styles and psychological well-being (GHQ) and physical symptoms to represent health. The associations of family structure with these outcomes is estimated for each Study at three levels: the overall association, that after controlling for gender and family income, and finally after controlling in addition for family processes. Odds ratios with 95 per cent confidence intervals are reported for those living in lone-parent households and reconstituted households each compared with intact families. Similar results are reported for those living in families disrupted by the death of a parent and for those whose parents had separated. No statistically significant differences (at the 5 per cent level) were found between the two studies in the adjusted models. The associations of family structure and reason for family disruption with outcomes for fifteen/sixteen year olds are similar in the West of Scotland to those in Britain as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim. To explore whether the association between social class and smoking among teenagers varies according to the definition of smoking adopted. Design, setting and participants. A survey of 2196 15-year-olds in 43 secondary schools in the West of Scotland. Measures. Current smoking status and number of cigarettes smoked, and social class based on the occupation of the head of the household. Findings. 'Current smoker' was the only category not significantly differentiated by class; the ratio of smokers from unskilled compared with professional backgrounds rose with increasingly stringent definitions of smoking. Conclusion. The extent to which teenage smoking is patterned by social class depends on the definition of smoking adopted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research suggests young women view drinking as a pleasurable aspect of their social lives but that they face challenges in engaging in a traditionally 'masculine' behaviour whilst maintaining a desirable 'femininity'. Social network sites such as Facebook make socialising visible to a wide audience. This paper explores how young people discuss young women's drinking practices, and how young women construct their identities through alcohol consumption and its display on social media. We conducted 21 friendship-based focus groups (both mixed and single sex) with young adults aged 18-29 years and 13 individual interviews with a subset of focus group respondents centred on their Facebook practices. We recruited a purposive sample in Glasgow, Scotland (UK) which included 'middle class' (defined as students and those in professional jobs) and 'working class' respondents (employed in manual/service sector jobs), who participated in a range of venues in the night time economy. Young women's discussions revealed a difficult 'balancing act' between demonstrating an 'up for it' sexy (but not too sexy) femininity through their drinking and appearance, while still retaining control and respectability. This 'balancing act' was particularly precarious for working class women, who appeared to be judged more harshly than middle class women both online and offline. While a gendered double standard around appearance and alcohol consumption is not new, a wider online audience can now observe and comment on how women look and behave. Social structures such as gender and social class remain central to the construction of identity both online and offline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Previous studies found lower substance use in schools achieving better examination and truancy results than expected, given their pupil populations (high value-added schools). This study examines whether these findings are replicated in West Scotland and whether school ethos indicators focussing on pupils'' perceptions of schooling (environment, involvement, engagement and teacher–pupil relations) mediate the associations. Teenagers from forty-one schools (S2, aged 13, n = 2268; S4, aged 15, n = 2096) previously surveyed in primary school (aged 11, n = 2482) were surveyed in the late 1990s. School value-added scores were derived from standardised residuals of two regression equations separately predicting from pupils'' socio-demographic characteristics (1) proportions of pupils passing five Scottish Standard Grade Examinations, and (2) half-day truancy loss. Outcomes were current smoking, monthly drinking, ever illicit drug use. Random effects logistic regression models adjusted for potential pupil-level confounders were used to assess (1) associations between substance use and school-level value-added scores and (2) whether these associations were mediated by pupils'' perceptions of schooling or other school-level factors (school roll, religious denomination and mean aggregated school-level ethos scores). Against expectations, value-added education was positively associated with smoking (Odds Ratios [95% confidence intervals] for one standard deviation increase in value-added scores were 1.28 [1.02–1.61] in S2 and 1.13 [1.00–1.27] in S4) and positively but weakly and non-significantly associated with drinking and drug use. Engagement and positive teacher–pupil relations were strongly and negatively associated with all substance use outcomes at both ages. Other school-level factors appeared weakly and largely non-significantly related to substance use. Value-added scores were unrelated to school ethos measures and no ethos measure mediated associations between value-added education and substance use. We conclude that substance use in Scotland is more likely in high value-added schools, among disengaged students and those with poorer student–teacher relationships. Understanding the underpinning mechanisms is a potentially important public health concern. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Minimum landing sizes (MLS) are generally set above the size at first maturity. • Regional variations should be considered when setting a MLS in fisheries management. • Size-at-maturity of brown crabs was similar in the east and west coasts of Scotland. • Brown crab males were shown to have mature gonads at smaller sizes than females. • The current MLS in Scotland allows crabs to reproduce at least once before capture. Minimum landing sizes (MLS) are commonly used to manage crustaceans and are generally set above the size at first maturity to ensure that some protection is afforded to exploited stocks. Despite the economic importance of the brown crab fishery in Scotland, the species is considered data-poor and only limited information is available on size-at-maturity. This study provides, for the first time, estimates of the size-at-maturity of brown crab on the east and west coasts of Scotland using gonadal and morphometric criteria. Gonadal maturity was determined from female ovary and male testes, which were classified macroscopically into development stages and their relationship with body size modelled using a logistic regression. Body morphometric maturity was studied by analysing morphometric changes in growth in the male chelae and female abdomens using generalized additive models and regression models to estimate the size at which changes in allometric relationships occur. Estimates of size-at-maturity using gonad development were 101-106 mm carapace width (CW) for males and 127-128 mm for females. Size-at-maturity based on the morphometric characters were 120-148 mm CW for males and 131-142 mm for females. Results show that brown crab maturity is likely to occur at lower sizes than the current MLS in Scotland, implying that crabs may be able to reproduce at least once before being harvested. Regional variations in local populations should be considered when setting a MLS and this study suggests that the current MLS of 150 mm is appropriate for both areas considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mental health disorders often arise during adolescence, with disruptive behavior disorders and anxiety disorders among the most common. Given the salience of peer relationships during adolescence, and research suggesting that mental health disorders negatively impact social functioning, this study uses novel methodology from social network analysis to uncover the social processes linking disruptive behavior disorders and anxiety disorders with adolescent friendships. In particular, the study focuses on peer withdrawal, peer popularity, and peer homophily in relation to both disorders. Data come from 15-year old students in four Scottish secondary schools (N = 602). Diagnoses of disruptive behavior disorders and anxiety disorders were produced using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, and peer relationship data were obtained through a friendship nomination survey. Exponential random graph models were used to estimate the probability of peer withdrawal, peer popularity, and peer homophily based on each disorder. Results demonstrated that adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders were more popular than their peers without disruptive behavior disorders (OR: 1.47, CI: 1.20, 1.87). Friendship was also more likely between two adolescents both with or both without disruptive behavior disorders (OR: 1.26, CI: 1.07, 1.47), demonstrating peer homophily. There was no evidence that anxiety disorders were related to adolescent peer relationships. Findings from this study suggest that disruptive behavior disorders may be socially rewarded (e.g., peer popularity) and socially clustered (e.g., homophily), whereas anxiety disorders show no such trends. Thus, intervention efforts must account for the peer social status that may be gained from engaging in disruptive behavior during this developmental period. Further, given that similarity in DBD status is associated with an increased likelihood of friendship, adolescents are likely to be surrounded by peers who reinforce their behaviors. • Peer relationships are associated with mental health disorders during adolescence. • Adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders experience increased peer popularity. • Homophily on disruptive behavior disorders is linked to friendship. • Anxiety disorders are not related to adolescent social connections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]