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Examines and interprets the role of the government-controlled radio-television station in the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Considers historical and political contexts of the genocide and analyzes excerpts from radio broadcasts and observational accounts. Interprets, via several strands of communication, scholarship related to collective reaction effects and dependency theory, the role played by radio in inciting the genocide. (SR)

How do we remember traumatic events, and are these memories different in individuals who experience post-traumatic stress? Some evidence suggests that traumatic events are mnemonically enhanced, or include more episodic detail, relative to other types of memories. Simultaneously, individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have more non-episodic details in all of their memories, a pattern hypothesized to result from impairment in executive function. Here, we explore these questions in a unique population that experienced severely traumatic events more than 20 years ago – individuals who lived through the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Participants recalled events from the genocide, negative events unrelated to the genocide, neutral events, and positive events. We used the Autobiographical Interview method to label memory details as episodic or non-episodic. We found that memories from the genocide showed robust mnemonic enhancement, with more episodic than non-episodic details, and contained more details overall than any other memory type. This pattern was not impacted by post-traumatic stress. Overall, this study provides evidence that traumatic events create vivid long-lasting episodic memories, in this case even more than 20 years later. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers have long debated how radio broadcasts affected the dynamics of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, with some arguing that the radio was highly consequential, and others suggesting such effects have been overstated. This article contributes to these debates—as well as to debates regarding the role of old and new media in collective action—by examining whether and how Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (Radio RTLM) coverage was associated with two core aspects of the violence: (1) subnational onset of genocidal violence and (2) participation in genocidal violence across subnational spaces. Drawing on new data on Radio RTLM coverage, we find that areas with coverage were more likely to experience immediate onset of violence. However, our analysis of participation in the genocide—which uses more accurate measures of participation and of radio coverage than prior studies—finds no significant association between Radio RTLM coverage and subnational levels of participation. After illustrating that these results are robust to numerous model specifications, we theorize that information broadcast over the radio's airways contributed to the creation of a critical mass that initiated genocide in localized spaces. We conclude by considering the importance of understanding the role of media in the subnational onset of violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reporting on cases of genocide presents distinct complexities and challenges for journalists, who must negotiate practical, professional, and emotional experiences that challenge traditional expectations of their role. Previous research has provided strident critiques of this reporting, arguing Western reporting of genocide in Rwanda and Srebrenica was reductionist and biased and contributed to the lack of Western intervention. Drawing on 22 interviews with print journalists who reported on genocides in Rwanda and Srebrenica, this article challenges this dominant critique by foregrounding the voices of journalists and their experience of reporting. Themes of inaccessibility, the moral imperative to report on these events, and the intersection with emotional labour on emotional effects of this reporting crucially demonstrates and acknowledges the challenges of conflict reporting. This adds to contemporary debates around how emotion, attachment and morality intertwine in journalism practice and the importance of this consideration when assessing the impact of reporting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on women’s participation in genocide and related violence focuses on the actions of women who are either at the very top or at the very bottom of social hierarchies. Exceptional roles played by a select few elite women prosecuted at international criminal tribunals have been recognized. Scholars have also examined the motivations of ordinary women who are swayed by ethnocentric scapegoating or commit violence out of fear and coercion, including social and economic incentives. In-depth analyses of female perpetrators in the professionals category who, along with men in that category, serve as bridgemakers between commoners and leaders are scarce. With the exception of nurses, teachers, and secretaries involved in the Holocaust, the professionals category is gravely understudied in scholarship on perpetrators. This article begins to rectify this gap by examining the case of Valérie Bemeriki who, as a journalist for the Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM), promoted the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. Valérie is a perpetrator who was intimately close to many Rwandans, including her victims, through the radio, yet she is simultaneously unfamiliar as her motivations have not been widely disclosed. The article provides an interpretive analysis of my interview with Valérie, radio transcripts of Valérie’s hate speech obtained by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), and Rwandan and international newspapers and secondary source materials concerning Valérie. The findings suggest that perpetrators in the professionals category convey a contradictory experience in their motivations during the violence and their grievances in the aftermath. While Valérie minimized her agency in the genocidal machine, emphasizing structural constraints, she actively distinguished herself from powerless commoners, including Rwandan women living in a deeply patriarchal society. The article portrays Valérie as a strategic professional who hoped to excel by catering to powerful political figures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By critically examining atrocity reports as a 'genocide genre', the authors seek to demonstrate how the combination of political, legal, historical, and other narratives enables these reports to become an important advocacy tool for international human rights organisations. Employing critical discourse analysis, and qualitative and quantitative content-analysis, the article proceeds with the examination of atrocity reports on Rwandan genocide, in order to uncover the representation of such categories as victim/perpetrator/international community, as well as 'the colonial question'. We also look into the topics not properly explored by the reports' authors, namely, social and economic inequalities that enable genocide. Contrary to the assumption that NGO reports are objective, politically impartial, and emotionally neutral, our conclusions point to the strategies of politicisation, sensationalism, and emotivity to manipulate a broad (international) audience. By drawing these conclusions, we seek to contribute to the emerging field of critical research that re-examines the role of 'international norm entrepreneurs' in African conflicts, and in world politics more generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When images of children in conflict situations are selected for a Western audience, what roles do the images fulfill for the audience? A content analysis of photographs provided by the Associated Press of children in Rwanda and Kosovo suggests that news agencies frame children of conflicts differently, as passive agents or success stories, in accordance with ideological and organizational guidelines. The findings of this study show that the Associated Press depicts children in Rwanda in racially stereotypical ways in comparison to their Kosovar counterparts. The current research examines the ways that news media depict children of color in the context of war and conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the 75th anniversary of the Genocide Convention, the role of the International Criminal Court (ICC), as constituted under the Rome Statute, in responding to genocide is worth evaluating. This article assesses the effectiveness of the ICC in addressing genocide, with a focus on the Al-Bashir Case (case concerning genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes in Darfur, Sudan) - the first ICC proceeding against a sitting Head of State charged with genocide. It first singles out the ICC's role in promoting international solidarity to prevent genocide, break cycles of violence, and enhance the likelihood of prosecution. It also discusses the legal obligation to strengthen international cooperation for the Al-Bashir Case, under the Genocide Convention, and considers the relevant contexts of the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. The analysis has incorporated legal and criminological literature, alongside scholarship of international relations from voluminous resources. This article emphasises the ongoing necessity for international cooperation within the ICC to effectively implement its mechanisms: investigation, prosecution, principle of complementarity, and deterrence. It suggests that this aim can be attained through encouraging Member States of both the Rome Statute and the Genocide Convention to actively participate in responding to genocide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the motivations that drive Rwandan diasporans in Kenya to oppose their country's peacebuilding efforts. As findings indicate, many Rwandan Hutu and Tutsi diasporans in Kenya oppose Rwanda's post-genocide peacebuilding process mainly due to the authoritarian governance of the current regime. This type of governance is characterized by silencing critics with violence, militarizing the peacebuilding process, and unequal socio-economic development, among others. Subsequently, there is little space for Rwandan diasporans in Kenya, and Rwandans in general, to participate in rebuilding their country towards a sustainable future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of social isolation and identify associated risk factors among genocide exprisoners in Rwanda. A cross-sectional study, using a mixed method approach, involved 382 respondents for the quantitative and 14 respondents for the qualitative data collection and analysis. The Lubben Social Network Scale was used to measure social isolation. Bivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the association of social isolation with sociodemographic and social environmental variables. Inductive thematic analysis was applied for the qualitative data. Findings indicate a prevalence of social isolation among genocide exprisoners of 26.2%. Divorced/separated respondents were four times more likely to experience social isolation than those married (p= .020). Being incarcerated for more than two decades increased the risk of social isolation at 81.3%. Participating in citizenship activities (p= .035) and increased cognitive social capital (p= .001) were associated with a reduced risk of social isolation. Qualitative results highlighted poverty, marital conflict and interpersonal distrust as factors associated with social isolation. Community-based psychosocial interventions engaging genocide ex-prisoners in interpersonal relationships and socioeconomic development upon release are expected to promote a positive self-image and community trust, leading to a reduced risk of social isolation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obtaining justice for individuals from different groups in the international community is a fundamental human right. Because of this, the United Nations has consistently recognized genocide as an international crime that is denied by everyone and for which those who commit it should be held accountable. Consequently, genocide falls under the purview of international criminal courts; however, its definition, elements of criminal liability, distinction from other international crimes, and standards used by the court to classify genocide crimes must all be defined. Understanding the elements of the crime is essential. These crimes damage humanity and jeopardize global peace and security, which makes it necessary to establish international courts with the authority to prosecute the perpetrators of these crimes. Genocide is not something that typically happens overnight or without warning. It is, in fact, a deliberate strategy. Genocide has a considerable impact on future generations. It has a detrimental effect on the safety and security of the population in neighboring areas because its consequences extend beyond the borders of the devastated country. For instance, the genocide in Rwanda is still being felt today in many ways, both inside the nation and among its neighbors, particularly in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's eastern territories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2009, following several countries including Burundi and Nigeria, a proposal was introduced in Rwanda to criminalize same-sex sex and lgbt activism. However, unlike the other countries, Rwanda's Article 217 criminalization proposal was eliminated within months of its introduction. While this result can be understood as a success story, it also can elide the obstacles Rwandan activists experience when organizing for lgbt people. The cross-movement coalition that formed to oppose Article 217 specifically adopted a nonconfrontational strategy designed to work within the authoritarian political system in Rwanda. While activists framed the removal of Article 217 as aligned with existing government priorities, the dialogue strategy has clear limits when activists' goals are to make further changes in Rwanda, particularly when government officials do not see further changes as aligned with their priorities. A combination of the authoritarian system and the government's focus on economic development and individual advancement narrowly circumscribe what types of activism the government will accept. This imperative to conform to government expectations means activists adopt rhetoric and encourage lgbt people to engage in activities that are focused on how they appear as individuals. This focus on the individual elides the wider structural problems that exist in Rwanda that perpetuate discrimination againstlgbt people, particularly those who experience multiple marginalizations. Lgbt activism is circumscribed so it can occur in Rwanda, but this has consequences for how much change is advocated for and who benefits from this activism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, I present the results of interviews with forty-nine former genocide perpetrators from Rwanda and fifty-one former members of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia to better understand motivations and desistance for participating in mass atrocities. I contrast these qualitative interviews with experimental research from psychology and neuroscience to offer an interdisciplinary approach to better understand their participation. The findings from the interviews show that a vast majority of respondents identified obedience to authority as a primary factor in their involvement. Many also cited the significant influence of group dynamics, particularly in Rwanda where many murders were carried out by armed groups. These reports align with two main forms of social influence: obedience to authority and conformity. Research in psychology and neuroscience had shown that obeying orders or conforming to a group can strongly alter our behaviors by affecting several brain processes. When questioned about desistance, a majority from both groups conceded that without intervention from an external military force, they would not have stopped participating on their own. This finding may be pivotal as it emphasizes the necessity of external intervention to stop mass atrocities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the methodological challenges of archival research on perpetrators of genocide, especially with regard to the selectivity, accessibility, and availability of perpetrator testimonies in the Genocide Archive of Rwanda, which is primarily a victimary archive, to use Sara Kendall's term. The discussion extends beyond Rwanda to include reflections on the purpose and focus of post-conflict archives, the silencing or enhancing of perpetrators' voices in archives, and the impact of archives on transitional justice processes. Archives are not neutral places that present objective facts. Rather, they are sites of power that contain specific narratives about the perpetrators and victims, which can negatively affect reconciliation between groups. Conflicts and genocides are dynamic, and the affected individuals have fluid identities: they can, for example, be victims as well as perpetrators. Do archives mirror these dynamics, and do they allow counter-histories? The article explores the testimonies available in the Genocide Archive, their meta-data, and narratives as well as gaps and omissions. Since archives tell stories and describe places of memorialisation, their policies and content influence how individuals and collectivities remember history - and how they can transition to a peaceful co-existence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous researchers, policymakers, and activists have advocated for the use of person-first language when referring to people who engaged in crime or violence. Such advocacy is rooted in firm evidence that person-first language (e.g. a person who committed a felony rather than a felon) is associated with lower rates of recidivism, more robust reintegration into communities, and less fear amongst members of the public. In this article, we extend this important discussion to genocide studies. Specifically, we suggest that genocide scholars -- as well as policymakers, reporters, and other professionals -- should consider the power tied to labelling people by their actions, as well as the impacts of these labels. To do so, we rely upon interviews with 165 people who were incarcerated for genocide in Rwanda, whom we interviewed both during their incarceration and upon their release. Given that the movement toward person-first language hinges on how people want to be labelled, we emphasize how those who committed genocide speak about themselves. Ultimately, we encourage consideration of person-first language following violence, which would involve departing from terms like perpetrator and genocidaire. We simultaneously acknowledge the discomfort in this discussion and underscore that person-first language does not remove responsibility for heinous actions. Rather, scrutinizing common terminology is part of our ethical duty to reflect upon the impact of our words. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thousands of women and girls experienced sexual violence during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, and many became pregnant as a result of rape. Based on two years of ethnographic research in Rwanda, this article discusses how kinship is (re-)established in the aftermath of sexual violence by focusing on the lived experiences of young people conceived in genocidal rape. The article explores what forms of relationships become possible, impossible, enabled or dismissed, in the aftermath of a period of extreme violence. Through detailing the delicate establishment of affective ties, I hope to show the subtle work that goes into containing genocide memories in the everyday. The article suggests that young people engage in careful and 'attuned' kinship practices in an environment that changes throughout their life course. In exploring how young people carefully navigate the mending, protecting, and accepting of 'family', the article emphasizes the possibilities and limitations of kinship in the aftermath of collective violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the vantage point of unmaking permanent minorities, 'post-genocide' Rwanda seems to have accomplished a transition into a de-ethnicised, de-tribalised and integrated political community. The unmaking of permanent minorities requires, I suggest, an anthropological movement beyond 'post-genocide Rwanda'. This is to say, the frame of analysis of the contemporary Rwandan social or political community must not be restricted to people's experiences of genocide. Rather, genocide undergirds, or, even more, continues to remake, the political community in Rwanda, while the social community does not share the experience of genocide. Indeed, the delinking of the 'post-genocide' political community from the 'second generation' social community requires an anthropological movement towards the everyday of how a political community constitutes itself as integrated. Such a move asks how the ordinary life worlds of common Rwandans are being constituted as de-tribalised, de-ethnicised communities. I examine the rift between the political and the social community in contemporary Rwanda through an anthropological inquiry into disputes. I suggest that peoples' involvement in disputes and how disputes are tackled in Rwanda provide a window into the social and political aspects of the community. Despite the way in which the Rwandan state tries to curtail inter-community conflict by eliminating a vocabulary of difference, ordinary people use disputes that erupt from their everyday engagements as a way to critique this overarching demand for unity. It is the dispute that puts forth critique as an intervention into the very makings of the unified political community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article draws upon interviews with 74 Rwandans to analyze how they explain civilian participation in the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Specifically, we assess how Rwandans describe why men and women perpetrated genocide. We find that respondents commonly attribute men's participation in the genocide to structural, external factors, such as government orders. However, respondents regularly attribute women's participation to jealousy and other factors tied to their personalities. We also assess how the attribution of blame may impact the treatment of formerly incarcerated individuals, suggesting that gendered views of the women who committed genocide may hinder their reentry and reintegration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As a new, unifying approach to mapping the cultural expressions of trauma sequelae, cultural scripts of trauma sequelae are empirically investigated here for the first time in a primarily qualitative study. Elements of Cultural Scripts of Trauma (CST) include the typical symptoms and appraisals of changes of those who have experienced traumatic events. These elements refer to the value orientations in the given culture. Aims: To identify post-traumatic cultural scripts' elements and their groupings, as expressed by trauma survivors from the East African population, and to explore the cultural values that serve as a reference to such scripts' elements. Methods: Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted in nine focus groups of trauma survivors and trauma experts. Grounded theory was the basis for the content analysis, and MAXQDA was used for coding and grouping. Semiquantitative analyses of the frequency of groupings followed. Results: The study extracted 270 elements of the cultural scripts of trauma. Three stages of cultural scripts' elements were identified including unspeakable, heart wounds and painful scars and growth. The reported elements are only those in the three last stages and they are grouped into six categories, such as cognitive appraisals, worldview, interpersonal relationships, body-related, positive changes and changes in family interest and management, while the elements of the first stages are not codable as the survivors do not yet get the words of their expressions. The cultural values that served as a reference consisted of holding the sadness, Christianity, community reputation, solidarity, social connectedness, social cynicism, and reproductiveness, among others. Discussion: This comprehensive study with participants from several countries in East Africa collected a large number of elements of cultural scripts of trauma for this regional area. Notably, these elements were based mostly on man-made traumas, such as the genocide against the Tutsis in Rwanda. Further steps in the CST investigation are subject to future studies, such as a more systematic investigation of the relationship with cultural values and the temporal relationships within the scripts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the significant amount of literature dedicated to ethical and methodological issues related to youth engagement and youth participation in research, few studies have examined how young people themselves view and give meaning to their own participation in research projects that employ creative practices that affect them. This article explores the perspectives of youth with regard to their participation in a research project. Drawing upon the voices and perspectives of youth affected by the genocide in Rwanda, we trace young people's views on ethical issues, particularly in relation to harm, process and power in research. We highlight some of the ethical challenges and opportunities in participatory research and practice with young people and discuss implications based on their thoughtful insights and reflections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studying what factors influence the ability to resonate with the pain of others in the aftermath of a genocide and how this extends to the following generation is critical to better understand the perpetuation of conflicts. In the present study conducted in Rwanda, we recruited former genocide perpetrators and survivors, and their respective children and investigated how their neural response to the pain of others is modulated when they visualized pictures of former perpetrators or survivors, or their offspring. We further evaluated how the impact of the genocide and psychological factors associated with trauma influenced the results. Results showed that the intergroup empathy bias--that is, a reduced neural response to the pain of the outgroup--is present for both individuals alive during the genocide and their offspring. We also observed that a higher number of stressors experienced during the genocide was associated with a higher reduction of the neural response to the pain of others, even toward the children of one's own ingroup. Finally, we observed that a deliberate and free decision to reconcile is associated with a higher neural response to the pain of others. The results may be central to encouraging reconciliation in peacebuilding programs and to fostering empathic repair after trauma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resilient autobiography emphasizes the relational aspect of life writing, drawing on human relationships that have added to the adversity in life recounted, but also builds on human connections that have encouraged and enabled survival. This paper examines resilience in Clemantine Wamariya and Elizabeth Weil's The Girl Who Smiled Beads: A Story of War and What Comes After, which recounts Wamariya's experiences of fleeing the Rwandan genocide. The other text considered is Abdi Nor Iftin and Max Alexander's Call Me American: A Memoir, which depicts Iftin's life in Somalia during the 1990s and relocation to Kenya and then the USA. The two autobiographical texts present resilience not only as survival but as embodied within the memoirs through the selves presented in the narratives. Resilience emerges as endurance in the face of hardship and suffering, and as a counterforce in various relational contexts, to traumatic personal and collective pasts. Both memoirs exemplify the devastating effects of war, displacement and personal loss, where trauma becomes entrenched in efforts made for survival. The attempt to reorder and repossess trauma can also be seen as an act of resilience. The personal narrative is interpreted and put into writing from the perspective of the person whose life is in focus but also through the eyes of an external observer. The life recounted can therefore be seen as both autobiographically and biographically produced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We estimate the effect of the Rwandan genocide on children born after the genocide using commune variation in genocide intensity and child work and schooling in the 2010 Demographic and Health Survey. We instrument for killings with the commune's distance to the Ugandan border. Doubling killings per capita increases the probability of a child working by 3.35 percentage points and decreases the probability of a child attending school by 3.68 percentage points. Our results suggest a long-term impact of the genocide likely to affect Rwanda's development into the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This contribution analyses conflicts around genocide memory in the diaspora. It shows how Assyrian/Syriac initiatives to create memorials to the 1915 genocide has triggered reactions by Turkish diaspora groups and the Turkish government. The Rwandan government, in contrast, has mobilized its diaspora to fight denial of Rwanda's 1994 genocide, while other diaspora activists draw attention to—and create commemorative practices around—other, silenced, mass-atrocities. The text discusses the opportunities for victimhood recognition and memorialization offered in the diaspora, and how genocide memory conflicts intertwine with foreign policy matters and national and local politics in the country of settlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moral exemplars (Imena) play an important part in commemorative practices and reconciliation in post‐genocide Rwanda. Acknowledging the essential role of moral exemplars in reconciliation and intergroup contact in post‐conflict setting, we aimed at examining the effects of exposure to moral‐exemplars on people's attitudes toward reconciliation and identification with superordinate national category in Rwanda. A study of 168 young Rwandans showed that higher awareness of moral exemplars during genocide was related to stronger ingroup ties with other ingroup members and higher centrality of national identification. Strong ingroup ties significantly mediated the effects of moral exemplars awareness on reconciliation attitudes. This shows that ties with other members of common national ingroup, as well as the centrality of superordinate categories could be effective means for reconciliation after genocide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past few decades, the growth of population and the development of the economy have had a significant impact on the way land is used and covered (LULC) in the Nile Nyabarongo River basin. However, there is limited knowledge about the patterns of land use and the mechanisms that drive changes in these patterns because of human activities. Therefore, it is crucial to examine how land use and cover are shifting in this area, identify the factors responsible for these changes, and forecast future patterns. This study sought (1) to evaluate the changes in LULC from 1990 to 2020 and (2) to predict future fluctuations until 2060. By analyzing the LULC data for the years 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020, this study simulated the future LULC patterns of the area for the next 30 years using the LULC transition matrix and the Markov chain model. The study classified the LULC into five categories: forestland, grassland, cropland, settlement, and water. The results revealed that there will be significant changes in the LULC of the study area from 2030 to 2060. The forest area is projected to decrease by 801.7 km, 771.6 km, and 508.2 km, while the cropland area will expand by 6307.2 km, 6249.2 km, and 6420.6 km during this period. The grassland area will experience a small increase of 761.1 km, 802.4 km, and 859.1 km, and the settlement area will also grow by 355.2 km, 407.4 km, and 453.2 km. In contrast, the water area will decrease by 55.9 km, 50.5 km, and 40 km. The ongoing pattern of LULCC is expected to persist over the next three decades, with an increase in cropland area and grassland. This study's findings can provide valuable insights for land use planners and water resource managers in developing fair land use and water resource management policies for the entire region, enabling them to make well-informed decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of memory laws has been gaining attention for the past few years. It is commonly defined as legal provisions governing history, including repressive measures against the denial of past crimes. Memory laws also include stateapproved interpretations of crucial historical events, the law establishing state holidays and commemoration of victims of past atrocities. The laws have a big part in transition and reconciliation, however, they may also lead to a distortion of historical truth. The main purpose of the paper is to analyse the coexistence between memory laws and the right to the truth in the context of human rights violations and international crimes. For that reason, firstly, the legal nature of the truth and memory under international law is evaluated. Secondly, the Rwandan legal provisions on genocide are analysed and comments are made on the elements of the Rwandan traditions concerning the past. That example serves to show the danger of the politicization of memory laws. Finally, the paper is an attempt to answer the question whether the conjunction of the right to the truth and memory laws is necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"After Genocide: Memory and Reconciliation in Rwanda" by Nicole Fox is a comprehensive study of memorialization and reconciliation in post-genocide Rwanda. Through interviews and ethnography, Fox explores how the tragedy of genocide continues to impact the everyday lives of survivors. The book examines the different narratives surrounding the genocide and how they shape collective memory in Rwanda. It also delves into the experiences of individual survivors, highlighting the complexities of their healing and coping processes. Additionally, Fox addresses the challenges faced by women survivors, particularly in relation to sex and gender-based violence. The book concludes with a methodological appendix that offers valuable insights for qualitative research and ethnography. Overall, "After Genocide" provides a nuanced and illuminating account of the long-lasting effects of genocide and the ongoing process of reconciliation in Rwanda. [Extracted from the article]

Rwanda has been a focus of substantial scholarly attention, but recent regulations there have made conducting research increasingly challenging. Four books from diverse disciplines show that, despite the ways in which the authoritarian context places constraints on what research can be undertaken and how it can be done, solid scholarship on Rwanda can continue to be produced. They also show that the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi remains the focal point of nearly every book on the country, even those focused on society since 1994. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Does personal growth initiative (PGI)—the tendency to be proactive about one's personal development—impact adaptive beliefs about life quality among survivors of mass violence, such as ethnopolitical warfare or genocidal violence? One‐hundred‐and‐twenty‐three survivors of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda and 179 Tamil individuals affected by the civil war in Sri Lanka completed assessments of PGI, satisfaction with one's past life, current life satisfaction, and anticipated future life satisfaction. High levels of PGI were associated with an adaptive inclining trajectory of life satisfaction (Past < Present < Future) in both samples. These results indicate that PGI is associated with adaptive beliefs about one's identity and well‐being among war‐affected populations, and supports future interventions targeting PGI among those communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: More than one million Rwandans were killed over a span of one hundred days during the 1994 genocide against the Tutsis. Many adult survivors were severely traumatized by the events, and young people, including those who were born after the genocide, have experienced similar genocide-related trauma. Building on a growing body of research on the generational transmission of trauma, our study addressed the following questions: (1) what are the possible mechanisms of trauma transmission from older generation to post-genocide Rwandan youth, and (2) what are the effects of intergenerational trauma on reconciliation processes in Rwanda. Methods: A qualitative study was conducted in Rwanda among youth born after the genocide, with parents who survived the 1994 genocide against the Tutsis and among mental health and peace-building professionals. Individual interviews (IDIs) included 19 post-genocide descendants of survivors and six focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with 36 genocide survivor parents residing in Rwanda's Eastern Province. Ten IDIs were also conducted with mental health and peace-building professionals in the capital city of Kigali. Respondents were recruited through five local organisations that work closely with survivors and their descendants. An inductive thematic analysis approach was used to analyse the data. Results: Findings from this study suggest that the trauma experienced by genocide survivor parents is perceived by Rwandan youth, mental health and peace-building professionals, and survivor parents themselves to be transmitted from parent to child through human biology mechanisms, social patterns of silence and disclosure of genocide experiences, and children's and youth's everyday contact with a traumatized parent. Genocide-related trauma among survivor parents is seen as often being triggered by both life at home and the annual genocide commemoration events. Additionally, when transmitted to genocide survivor descendants, such trauma is understood to negatively affect their psychological and social well-being. Intergenerational trauma among youth with genocide survivor parents limits their involvement in post-genocide reconciliation processes. Findings specifically show that some youth avoid reconciliation with a perpetrator's family due to mistrust as well as fear of re-traumatizing their own parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing upon a qualitative study of an optional course taught annually over seven years, considerations are discussed around how an interdisciplinary and historically grounded programme of study can be delivered which seeks to enable students to acquire a sophisticated understanding of the Holocaust. Particular consideration is given to the defining of key terms as well as how to develop an understanding of the Holocaust which more appropriately reflects the phenomenon's evolution, complexity and jurisdictional variations. The study also explores how students understand comparative genocide with a focus on both the Holocaust and the Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies of genocide have yielded varying estimates of the number and characteristics of people who engaged in violence. We address these disparities in estimates for one well-studied case: the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Using novel data from Rwanda's post-genocide gacaca courts, we provide updated estimates regarding participants. Specifically, we find that between 847,233 and 888,307 people participated in the genocide, with 181,280 to 190,113 people found guilty of only violent offenses, 618,164 to 654,152 individuals found guilty of only property crimes, and 44,042 to 47,789 individuals found guilty of both property and violent crimes. In total, we estimate that between 229,069 and 234,155 individuals were found guilty of a violent offense, including those who committed violent offenses as well as both violent and property offenses. These results align with past research, representing an important convergence of evidence regarding participation in this genocide. We also calculate specific characteristics of participants, finding that nearly 90% of all participants were men and that the median age for all participants was 34. Although most participants committed a single crime, between 215,124 and 222,522 people were found guilty of multiple crimes. Approximately 6% of people accounted for 25% of the property crimes, while 11% of people accounted for 25% of the violent crimes. These findings provide foundational information about one of the deadliest episodes of mass violence in the 20th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the gacaca trials of women accused of perpetrating the Rwandan genocide, asking whether and how ideas about their gender impacted their defences, testimonies and experiences as defendants. It uses court reports of the trials of 91 accused women; a set of sources that provides novel insights into the role of gender in an African transitional justice system. These sources reveal that ideas about gender – particularly female peacefulness and passivity – were commonly invoked by both accused women and wider trial participants. These gendered ideas not only helped women to achieve acquittals, but they also contributed to the Rwandan state's construction of a 'truth' narrative that ordinary Rwandan women are not capable of genocide violence. Additionally, women's trials reveal a further function of the gacaca process: as a political tool that made moral judgements about contemporary Rwandan women's domestic roles and place within the household. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The past is deep and, if taken with appropriate and critical evaluation, it is filled with lessons for the present and the future. In Rwanda, a country with countless "dry bones" due to the war, the genocide, and their aftermath, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that re-envisioning Christian responsibilities is of decisive importance. Since a family that does not remember vanishes (umuryango utibuka urazima), I hereby argue that coming to terms with the past with critical ecclesial imagination cannot be overemphasized. This article offers a constructive approach to building a vital Rwandan church from the perspective of a theology of symbols. It also recommends three models of ecclesial renewal for building the church. The article thus seeks to use the suffering endured by Rwandans to offer lessons to our wounded world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, some individuals risked their lives to save others. While much research has analyzed why people rescue during genocide, no studies have systematically analyzed the post-conflict consequences of engaging in such actions. This article begins to fill this gap by treating rescue as a case of behavioural boundary crossing, or individual defection from the expectations of a behavioral script. We rely upon 45 in-depth interviews with Rwandan Hutu who rescued Tutsi and who also did not participate in genocidal violence. Our findings indicate that rescue may be tied to both positive and negative social and economic consequences, from gifts and public recognition to stigma and threats. We suggest that many of these consequences result from the fact that Hutu who rescued went against the expectations of their group. As the positive consequences were often driven by Tutsi and the negative consequences were driven by Hutu, we also suggest that such consequences are tied to fault lines between groups in Rwandan society. Our work consequently aligns with and extends previous research finding that the genocide produced, reinforced, and augmented social cleavages in Rwanda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Should forgiveness be considered a civic virtue that promotes peace and justice following injustice? In the aftermath of conflicts as severe as state-sponsored genocide, how can relationships be restored, communities reconciled, and justice achieved? We interviewed 15 adults in Rwanda—survivors of the 1994 genocide, nominated as exemplars for their youth-serving roles in their communities and their experiences with forgiving the traumas of the genocide—about their approaches to conflict resolution, their ideas about justice and forgiveness, and their community work. Phenomenological analysis supported considering forgiveness as a civic virtue, as exemplars described a restorative approach to conflict in which justice facilitates, and is completed by, forgiveness. Implications for education emerged from exemplars' accounts, including describing a process of conflict resolution that works toward peace and justice by means of listening, uncovering the truth, acting impartially, encouraging apology and forgiveness, advising for solutions, restoring rights and relationships, and fulfilling justice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines if and how memorial museums exhibit graphic atrocity photographs, including pictures of executions and decomposing corpses, images taken by perpetrators that humiliate the victims or depict the persecuted in a stereotypical, antisemitic, or racist way, and voyeuristic photographs showing (almost) naked people being persecuted before their execution. The contribution sets out with a brief introduction to the general history of the approach taken towards photographic material since 1945, before describing the transformation of its use in memorial museums - first in the much-discussed Western Holocaust and World War II context, but then also for the Asian-Pacific World War II theatre in China and Japan and with regard to the museumization of the more recent 1990s genocides in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Rwanda. Finally, I categorize exhibited images taken by perpetrators, liberators, victims (turning into survivors) etc. Whether or not museums decide to display such representations of violence, they pay a price and thus need to counterbalance their decision by well-reflected methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been an increasing effort to deliver Education in Emergencies (EiE) from the international community since the 1990s because of protracted humanitarian situations. Despite the growing attention to EiE, many children in conflict-affected situations miss schooling without having the opportunity to receive a second chance education (SCE), or voice their perspectives on this situation. Given the gaps within EiE, this paper focuses on the largely overlooked issue of out-of-school children and young people resulting from conflict, and potential for an SCE. Based on 23 life story interviews conducted in Rwanda, it examines how learners in post-genocide Rwanda made sense of the complex education journey that they undertook and their motivations for an SCE. The research demonstrates various motivations, including both intrinsic and extrinsic, using self-determination theory. It provides learners' perspectives on education that are currently missing in the EiE field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes the migration, resettlement and integration challenges and strengths of members of the African Diaspora in Canada who identify as survivors of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi of Rwanda. Data were generated from semi‐structured interviews with 16 adult community members and a thematic analysis conducted inductively and collectively with the research team consisting of academics and representative community members. This article provides insights into the unique long‐term impacts of genocide on migration, resettlement and community‐level functioning for this group of African migrants living in a mid‐Western city in Canada. Results highlight how Canadian immigration policies limit migration options and prevent family reunification for migrants with none or few remaining family members and the associated resettlement challenges experienced by this group. Results also show the vital role the Rwandan Diaspora community, and particularly other survivors, play in supporting resettlement, integration and overall well‐being of genocide survivors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mountain regions and their communities are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts. However, little is known on the impacts observed and adaptation responses used in Burundi's mountain region and if these are different to those reported in the contiguous mountain region of Rwanda. This paper aims to fill in these knowledge gaps. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 300 smallholder farmers, 150 in northern Burundi and 150 in southern Rwanda. Farmers in both countries reported negative impacts on crops, animals, and human health, with small differences between countries driven by the main cultivated crops. More adaptation strategies were used in Burundi than in Rwanda, and more farmers in Burundi were using multiple strategies. In both countries, farmers' wealth affected farmers' adaptation responses and their food security. Notably, for all wealth groups (poor, average, rich), food security was lower in Rwanda than in Burundi. We relate our findings to current agricultural intensification policies in both countries and argue for the greater involvement of local farmers in adaptation planning using, for example, science-with-society approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 20th century was marked by mass murder and crime to humanity, such as genocide, war crime, and ethnic cleansing, resulting in tens of millions of deaths throughout the world. While the objective of establishing the United Nations in 1945 aimed at preventing such crimes, mass murders kept on occurring, as the cases in Bosnia and Rwanda in 1990s. The responsibility to protect (R2P) concept emerged as a response to these failures, by proposing that the sovereignty of a country should be based on the responsibility to protect its citizens, rather than the right to take actions without any intervention from the international world. This research aims at exploring the R2P concept as an attempt to protect human rights in the international humanitarian law context by analyzing the relevant literature and legal norms to discover how this concept can be the basis for protecting human rights under conflict situation and four mass violations of human rights. It used normative legal research method based on international law framework. Two approaches were used, namely conceptual and comparative ones. The research results indicated that R2P concept was the best alternative for humanitarian intervention to protect mankind from such crimes as genocide, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. In an intracountry conflict, the international community was responsible through preventive and military intervention attempts. The R2P concept was also relevant in international humanitarian law since it gave a clear framework in protecting human rights and preventing mass crimes, especially in relation to the use of military power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Families that rely on rain-fed agriculture are prone to rainfall shocks. We use a unique data set of at-risk children in rural Rwanda to estimate the impact of rainfall shocks during a child's in utero period. We find that increases in in utero rainfall during the midseason period increase child height-for-age z -scores but that increases in in utero rainfall in the harvest period lower these z -scores. In light of these period-specific effects, annual rainfall measures may attenuate estimates of child growth effects toward zero. We also find that intraseasonal impacts of rainfall on child growth are particularly salient for households that do not report any off-farm income sources and therefore rely solely on their own agricultural production for their livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to offer a first investigation of the neuro-cognitive processes and the temporal dynamics at the neural level, together with cultural, social and psychological dimensions, that may support resistance to orders to harm another person. Using a novel experimental approach to study experimentally disobedience, we recruited individuals from the first generation born after the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Seventy-two were recruited and tested in Rwanda and 72 were recruited and tested in Belgium. Results indicated that a higher neural response to the pain of others and a higher feeling of responsibility when people obeyed orders were associated with more resistance to immoral orders. We also observed that participants who had a higher processing, as measured through mid-frontal theta activity, when listening to the orders of the experimenter disobeyed less frequently to immoral orders. Further, participants experiencing a higher conflict before administering a shock to the 'victim' also disobeyed more frequently to immoral orders. Finally, a low cultural relationship to authority and a high estimated family suffering during the genocide were also associated with more disobedience to immoral orders. The present study opens new paths for interdisciplinary field research dedicated to the study of obedience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple theories, including attachment, family systems, and epigenetics, among many others, have been invoked to explain the mechanisms through which trauma is transmitted from one generation to the next. To move toward integration of extant theories and, thus, acknowledgement of multiple pathways for transmission of trauma, the authors explore the potential of applying a culturally enhanced bioecological theory to transgenerational trauma (TGT). Data from in-depth qualitative interviews in Rwanda more than two decades after the genocide, with 44 mothers of children born of genocidal rape, and in-depth interviews and focus groups with a total of 60 youth born of genocidal rape, were analyzed according to the processes of culturally enhanced bioecological theory. The findings from a hybrid inductive and deductive thematic analysis suggest that a culturally enhanced bioecological theory of human development allows for an integrated, multi-dimensional analysis of individual, family, cultural, and societal factors of transmission of TGT. Some facets of the data, however, are not accounted for in the theory, specifically, how some mothers were able to create and sustain a positive bond with their children born of genocidal rape, despite societal and family pressure to abandon or abort them. Nonetheless, the findings demonstrate how a culturally enhanced bioecological theory can be an important overarching framework for developing policies and practices to help interrupt or mitigate TGT, strengthen resilience, and facilitate healing for children born of genocidal rape, their mothers, and their families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]