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The common characterisation of European Union (EU) and Russian external energy relations as liberal versus realist does not do justice to the efforts of both entities to shape energy market regulation in their shared neighbourhood. This article aims to contribute to the understanding of energy regulation as a tool of strategic influence by examining from a geopolitical perspective how the EU, Russia and, to a lesser extent, China attempt to shape gas pricing and pipeline access regimes in the post-Soviet Eurasian space. A geopolitical analysis of regulatory convergence in the region helps understand how liberal concepts of energy regulation acquire a strategic function when exported to contested spheres of influence, with important consequences for the legitimacy and acceptability of these regulatory models. The EU, Russia and China recognise common principles of gas market regulation at the domestic level, but geopolitical considerations, exacerbated by the war in Ukraine, prevent the implementation of these principles at the regional level, hindering the transition of this contested neighbourhood towards more efficient energy systems and reduced dependence on Russian supplies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electricity supply in remote areas of the Russian territory is heavily dependent on diesel sources. Diesel generation imposes an important economic and social burden on the local population, besides the environmental impact of greenhouse gas emissions, black carbon and oil spills. Switching to renewable energy could reduce the current economic, social and environmental cost of electricity supply in Russia׳s remote areas. The objective of this paper is to review Russia׳s off-grid renewable energy policy by focusing on the promotion of wind- and solar-diesel hybrid energy in the Russian Arctic. Taking a mainly regulatory perspective, this paper identifies existing barriers to the development of hybrid renewable-diesel investments. Building further on the international experience with the promotion of renewable energy in Arctic climates ( e.g., in Alaska and Canada), this paper tests the feasibility of alternative ‘best practice’ mechanisms to support off-grid renewable energy in Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the Ukraine conflict and the resulting political hostility between Russia and the West have put a stop to the 2000 EU-Russia Energy Dialogue, the mutual benefits of energy cooperation and cross-border energy investments are undeniable. Taking these mutual benefits into account, energy would be a logical area of focus if the EU and Russia were to decide to re-initiate their strategic partnership in the event of a normalization of the situation in Ukraine. Although this scenario still is highly hypothetical and a further deterioration of EU-Russian relations is possible, it is important to reflect on the creation of institutional structures that would enable the EU and Russia to rebuild trust by working together in a field of common strategic interest. In this context, this article examines the possibility of establishing an EU-Russian energy agreement to overcome the current misunderstandings that exist between the EU and Russia in respect of the interpretation and application of the main concepts of energy law. The legal certainty resulting from such an energy-specific agreement could contribute to improving the investment climate for cross-border EU-Russian energy investments and possibly, through closer investment ties, enhancing trust between the EU and Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency has long since been a pillar of the European internal energy policy. It now takes on increasing importance in European external energy relations. It is, for instance, key to the EU–Russian Energy Dialogue. I analyse how energy efficiency has been institutionalised in EU external energy relations, in particular towards Russia. I examine whether energy efficiency can be seen as a new paradigm for understanding external energy relations. Based on this conceptual delimitation, I describe and assess the regulatory mechanisms proposed by the EU to implement this approach in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russia is not only rich in natural gas, oil, coal and uranium. It also holds a considerable renewable energy resource base. The Federal Electricity Law mandates the federal Government to stimulate the development of renewable energy sources. However, so far, the Government has failed to create a functioning regulatory framework that would ensure the financial viability of these investments. This article examines the role that regional authorities could play in developing clean energy in the Russian Federation. Building further upon the environmental federalism literature, this article analyses the regulatory barriers to regional feed-in tariffs in Russia and, based on the US experience, proposes legal solutions to overcome these barriers. Russia—because of its role as a fossil fuel superpower, its weak track record on climate change mitigation, together with high political centralisation of power—is a unique case for an analysis of the role of regions as innovators of sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russia possesses enormous potential for the development of renewable energy sources. Given the necessity to modernize the economy and stimulate innovation, the exploitation of this potential is increasingly recognized as a national political priority. Replacing traditional fossil energy sources with renewable energy in the Russian fuel mix will also have a positive impact on European energy security and climate policy. The European partners thus have an interest in stimulating this development. Sharing with Russia the lessons learned from the European experience in the field of renewable energy policy could be a way to assist Russia in its efforts to develop adequate regulatory mechanisms to stimulate renewable energy investments. This contribution argues that this attempt can only be successful if the European and Russian partners ‘speak the same language’ in terms of renewable energy policy. It therefore proposes to compare the support mechanisms developed by EU Member States with the Russian scheme in order to highlight potential misunderstandings in the concepts and instruments used. Moreover, this contribution argues that the European Union will only be convincing in its approach towards Russia if it avoids a ‘normative hegemonic’ behaviour. Rather than presenting its rules as ‘best practice’, the European Union should highlight what went wrong with its approach so as to avoid repeating the same mistakes in Russia. It appears from the European experience that regulatory instability constitutes the most important obstacle to a successful renewable energy policy. The readiness of the Russian authorities to meet investors’ concern of stability will therefore determine Russia's ability to attract private investments in the development of its enormous renewable energy potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a sequel to 'Improving the Climate for European Investments in the Russian Electricity Production Sector: (I) the Role of Investment Protection Law', which appeared in the previous issue of the Journal. It examines whether convergence of the regulatory frameworks governing the European and Russian electricity markets could improve the predictability of investment conditions in the Russian electricity production sector. Could the creation of an EU--Russian level playing field in the electricity sector answer the legal uncertainties faced by European investors in Russia? This question is analysed in the broader context of the EU--Russian energy relationship. The article first examines the notion of regulatory convergence and its conceptual evolution in the context of the increasing strategic importance of Russia for the European energy market. Thereafter the potential success of this approach is assessed in light of comparative law, especially legal transplant theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large investments are needed to modernise the Russian electricity production sector. To finance these investments, Russia is liberalising its electricity market. Moreover, it has recently established regulatory frameworks to promote alternative modes of electricity production. European energy concerns are expected to play an important role in this modernisation process by transferring capital and energy efficient technologies. The readiness of these companies to invest will, however, depend on the predictability and credibility of the investment climate. This article identifies potential sources of uncertainty and regulatory changes that may affect investments in electricity production in Russia. It focuses in particular on electricity reform, climate policy and so-called 'first-generation' reforms. It then examines the extent to which international investment law, especially the investment regime of the Energy Charter Treaty, offers adequate protection against the risks of regulatory change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]