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The aim of the article is to analyse the factors influencing entrepreneurs' decisions about investing in renewable energy. It outlines a number of different factors that may affect the process of transforming entrepreneurs into business prosumers, who thus want to limit the effects of rising energy prices. The article defends the thesis that in addition to the economic, technological and psychological dimensions, legal and political stability, access to reliable information and the level of trust in a given society are equally important. Based on the quantitative research results, the article indicates which elements are particularly important for entrepreneurs when making decisions about investing in renewable energy and which institutions are indicated by Polish entrepreneurs as responsible for implementing energy transition. The article also indicates that information about the possibility of receiving funding from the European Union and the government, the government's energy policy and technological possibilities is important for entrepreneurs' decisions about investing in renewable energy in Poland. It is always difficult to implement sustainable development goals without an atmosphere of trust and predictable legal stability in which entrepreneurs can run their businesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: One of the potential dimensions on which exclusion and injustice may occur in energy transitions is age. Age-based patterns of exclusion—ageism—has recently been conceptualized in the context of decarbonization as energy ageism. This paper offers a comparative empirical analysis of the senior citizens' outlook towards an imminent energy transition as well as the impact of energy poverty in two European countries: Norway and Poland. Results: Drawing on interviews and focus groups with Polish and Norwegian seniors, we present the differences and similarities between the two countries, and the determinants of energy ageism, as well as the concept's overall applicability and empirical usefulness. We find that socioeconomic conditions outweigh ageism, that is, the resilience of senior citizens in dealing with energy poverty during a transition is conditioned by their material standing and welfare state robustness rather than age based. An important factor is household heating technology, combined with economic vulnerability can push some individuals into energy poverty, while others using alternative sources of heat can navigate through energy crises unscathed. Conclusions: We note the importance of mainstreaming social inclusion considerations in energy policy and of targeted digital competence building which can enhance senior citizen integration in the energy transition. Lower levels of digital competences among senior citizens certainly play a role and need to be addressed with education programs to increase participation. In both countries, household heating is a major issue and heating sources are strong predictors of energy poverty and regulatory measures and subsidies should be designed at national, regional, and municipal level to assist vulnerable groups in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the financial determinants of the efforts of local government units (LGUs) to invest in the area of energy transition (ET). The main objective is to verify the links between the scale, directions, and funding sources of LGUs' investments in ET and their budgetary situation described by the level of income independence, budget result, and debt level. The general research hypothesis assumes that the ET investment activity of LGUs is associated with their financial situation. The analysis covers the period 2019–2022 and uses data from the questionnaire-based survey conducted in 2023 among 181 LGUs in the Podkarpackie region in southern Poland. Non-parametric tests were employed to verify the association between the LGUs' ET investment activity and their financial situation: the Chi2 test, the Mann–Whitney U test, the Kruskal–Wallis test, and the Kendall's Tau correlation. Financial aspects were shown to influence the scale of municipal ET investments, as well as the type of projects implemented. Among the analysed financial indicators, the debt level was the most important constraint for LGUs to make their own ET investments. The debt level not only determined the scale of municipal ET investment, but also influenced decisions on the type of investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses one of the contemporary economy's most challenging endeavors: the energy transition. Specifically, the aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of Poland's energy transition process between 2004 and 2021. A comprehensive approach is employed to analyze Poland's energy transition process, focusing on the effectiveness of implementation through the Energy Transition Effectiveness Index. This methodology incorporates four dimensions, namely energy security, economic considerations, climate impact, and social aspects, each characterized by 22 sub-indices. The research methodology employs a two-tiered approach based on the multi-criteria decision making methodology. The EDAS method is utilized to determine the indices' values, while the CRITIC, equal weights, and statistical variance methods and Laplace's criterion are employed to ascertain sub-indices values and dimension weights, particularly useful for decision making under uncertainty. Moreover, the relationship between these indices, the Energy Transition Effectiveness Index, and Poland's Gross Domestic Product is explored. By evaluating Poland's energy transition effectiveness from 2004 to 2021 and comparing the results with other European Union countries, it becomes evident that the effectiveness varies over time. Despite encountering economic and social challenges during the energy sector's transformation, Poland exhibits positive progress in its energy transition efforts, outperforming certain European Union counterparts. However, there is a pressing need to intensify efforts to curtail emissions and enhance renewable energy utilization. The European Union's support and coordination are deemed crucial in facilitating these endeavors, alongside fostering the wider adoption of best practices among member states. The developed methodology stands as a valuable tool for ongoing evaluation of transformation processes across European Union nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of the article is to present the current situation in the energy sector in Poland, with particular emphasis on the role of renewable energy sources (RES), and to assess the impact of these investments on the future of the energy sector in Poland. Design/methodology/approach: Secondary research was conducted to characterize the energy market in Poland. Documents from four leading electric power producers in Poland were examined. Findings: Despite the fact that Polish energy sector still heavily relies on coal, the future of the Polish energy sector appears to be closely linked to the development of RES. Leading companies operating in the Polish energy sector have adopted strategies involving significant investments in RES. Research limitations/implications: This study focuses on the power sector and does not take into account investments in RES made by households. Therefore, future research could focus on the energy transition of households in particular, identifying the determinants and constraints of this transition. Practical implications: This paper shows how legal regulations, including CO2 emission restrictions and international commitments, affect the current situation of the Polish energy market and shape its development. These regulations also point out the need to accelerate the country's energy transition in order to increase energy security through diversification of energy sources. Social implications: Large-scale investments in renewable energy sources will contribute to reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, thus, they will have positive effect on the environment. Originality/value: The issue of energy transition is addressed from both a practical and social point of view. The analysis conducted uses the most recent data, thereby providing up-to-date knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the roles that various forms of entrepreneurial action (economic, social, political) play in the emergence of new socioeconomic fields during the process of energy transition. The article is based on the results of qualitative research conducted among actors involved in establishing microgrids in Poland. We analyze three cases that differ in terms of the dominant form of entrepreneurial action, the capital at play, and the state of the field. We assert that the development of local energy initiatives requires the interplay of all three forms of entrepreneurial action. All three are necessary for the newly established field to be resilient, economically optimized, and embedded in not only political and business networks but also in the community at large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland is among the top ten countries in the world in terms of lignite resources (including reserves). With respect to lignite mining, its position is even higher at sixth in the world, fourth in Europe and second in the European Union (EU). The role of lignite in the Polish energy mix is crucial because ~27% of electricity was generated in lignite-fired power plants in 2022. However, there are countries in Europe where the dependence on lignite is much greater and currently in the range of 40-96%. B oth the national and EU climate energy policy assumes the abandonment of lignite as a source of 'dirty' electricity within the next two decades. This ambitious goal is achievable but it may be threatened by the geopolitical situation. However, after 2040-2044, a large number of lignite deposits will remain in Poland. The deposits are well recognized and the detailed geology is well documented, with the estimated reserves intended for exploitation amounting to 5.8 Gt. These deposits, like the five which are currently mined, are stratigraphically diverse and characterized by a complex geology, representing different genetic types. In the context of a coal-free energy policy in the EU, the problem of the legal protection of lignite deposits remains. Thus, the question arises of what is next for Polish lignite deposits. They may be managed in the coming decades by using improved unconventional methods, such as in situ or ex situ gasification. Lignite deposits will constitute a strategic reserve in the event of a deep energy crisis caused by an unstable geopolitical situation. Finally, we suggest the urgent introduction of more precise legal changes that would protect at least part of the lignite resources in Poland for future generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy transition is one of humanity's most significant challenges. All micro, small, medium, and large enterprises will have to face it, and some are already making progress. This paper focuses on the involvement of the smallest actors in the energy transition. Micro and small enterprises comprise the largest part of the economy and significantly impact its development. Concerning the broad scope of their activities, these entities are characterized by a specific owner–manager relationship. This means that the final decision is influenced by business objectives, the manager's approach, their awareness of change, and personal and other factors. Based on the analysis of data from 400 companies, it was found that the involvement of micro and small enterprises in the energy transition is related to their market and financial success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy transformation in Poland, including the need to accelerate the shift away from hard coal and lignite in the power system, has been taking place in the face of the energy crisis. Ambitious climate and economic goals force the development of renewable energy sources, but they require legislative changes for the benefit of socially vulnerable consumers. This is important from the point of view of counteracting energy poverty. Energy transformation is not only a change in the fuel used, but most of all, the path and basis of low-carbon development that changes many socio-economic systems. The aim of this study is to link the development and environmental challenges in the studied subject matter with social challenges. The analyses show that it is necessary to strengthen the use of local energy potential and resources, and to activate local communities. The construction of nuclear power plants is also crucial. The results of the presented theoretical and empirical studies can be the basis for a revision of the energy policy in Poland in the area of the social dimension of the energy sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the results of a study of the determinants of energy transformation of coal-dependent regions. The case study was on the region of Silesia. This region is the main producer of hard coal and coking coal in Poland, with nineteen mines and numerous coal-fired power plants. Silesia is highly industrialized and urbanized, contributing significantly to Poland’s GDP. However, it is also a leader in terms of methane and carbon dioxide emissions. The study used an approach based on Alvin L. Bertrand’s ‘stress-strain’ theory, to investigate the socio-cultural stresses emerging as a result of the interaction of external factors and internal process dynamics within the region itself. Then, using Marc Wolfram’s systems-based analytical framework approach, the current transformative capacity of Silesia was analyzed. The theoretical framework adopted assumes that socio-cultural stress can be inferred from past situations of tension, influencing the social structure of the region and shaping accepted patterns of adaptation to change. Socio-cultural stress emerges as a key determinant of a region’s coping strategy and shapes its ability to transform in the long term. The research approach presented in this article adopts a comprehensive framework that integrates socio-cultural, socio-ecological and technological dimensions, providing a holistic view of a region’s transformation challenges and opportunities. The research was conducted using focus group interviews and a structured interview questionnaire. Participants in the research were individuals representing a diverse community of experts and activists involved in the energy transition process in Silesia, including local government officials, businesses, professional associations and social activists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses certain issues related to the application of various cargo delivery systems that facilitate energy transition in cities and agglomerations. The main purpose of this article was to estimate the effects resulting from the application of a cargo delivery system that is an alternative to road transport within the area of the Szczecin agglomeration. The study applied the following research methods: literature review, mathematical computations, case study, and observation. The article estimated the volume of transport external costs' reduction resulting from shifting cargo deliveries from road to rail transport in said agglomeration, applying the EU methodology to specify the amounts of external costs generated by individual modes and means of transport. The completed studies have demonstrated that the application of a rail-based cargo delivery system in the Szczecin agglomeration would enable a considerable reduction in the external costs generated by transport, thus supporting energy transition in said area. The findings also make it possible to conclude that the proposed solution may bring some other effects, such as a reduction in the number of diesel-powered heavy goods vehicles, reduced road congestion, and the increased safety of residents, as well as supporting electromobility and low-emission mobility policies in cities and agglomerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents an analysis of the role of interest groups in Poland's energy policy in the context of the EU climate and energy policy. The main aim of the analysis is to try to answer the question of who shapes the Polish energy policy, which stakeholders have the greatest impact on, who are the key players, and what kind of interest intermediation system has developed in the energy sector. Poland's energy mix is dominated by coal, which results from the ownership structure in the energy sector, strong influence of conventional (coal) energy companies and centralization of energy policy. The interests of coal energy companies are protected by the government both in Poland and at the EU level. The research puts forward a thesis that Polish energy policy is co-shaped by conventional energy companies, which leads to their monopolistic position and the formation of a neocorporatist model with elements of statism, and the process of illiberal backlash and creeping authoritarianism further strengthens their role. Privileging the interests of the state-owned energy companies hampers the process of energy transition in Poland, which is contrary to the EU's climate and energy policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary aim of this study was to assess the investment activity of basic local government units in the development of renewable energy sources co-financed by EU funds depending on CO2 emissions and other socio-economic conditions in terms of regions of Poland in the years 2007–2020. Empirical studies aimed at the verification of the research hypothesis that "the greatest investment activity in local projects co-financed from EU funds related to the development of renewable energy sources is observed for local government units in regions with highest CO2 emissions". Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the Ministry of Investment and Economic Development in Poland, the Local Data Bank, and the National Centre for Emissions Management. Thus, the conducted analyses provide both cognitive and applicatory values for the establishment of an appropriate energy transition policy in individual regions of Poland, which may be implemented by local government authorities within the current financial framework. Data concerning CO2 emissions at the regional level were estimated by applying the original disaggregation method as modified by the authors, which made it possible to fill the research gap resulting from the lack of data on emissions at the regional level. In order to show the regional diversification in investment activity of local government units in terms of renewable energy sources, its multi-faceted analysis was conducted by applying the Ward method. Clusters of regions with similar investment activity of local government units were described based on characteristics included in the typological classification (so-called active characteristics) and selected indexes showing CO2 emission levels, as well as selected socio-economic indexes (so-called passive characteristics). Based on the empirical studies, the research hypothesis presented in this paper was negatively verified. Considering both multiannual financial frameworks, the EU financial support for the development of renewable energy sources was used primarily by local government units of a predominantly agricultural character, and less advanced in terms of their development but exhibiting conditions conducive to renewable energy development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of research on the development of photovoltaic systems in Poland. The authors' goal was to identify factors that can potentially shape the dynamics of solar energy development in Poland and that will affect the implementation of the PEP2040 goals. The authors also wanted to find a forecasting method that would enable the introduction of many explanatory variables—a set of identified factors—into the model. After an initial review of the literature, the ARMAX and MLR models were considered. Finally, taking into account MAPE errors, multiple regression was used for the analysis, the error of which was 0.87% (minimum 3% for the ARMAX model). The model was verified based on Doornik–Hansen, Breusch–Pagan, Dickey–Fuller tests, information criteria, and ex post errors. The model indicated that LCOE, CO2 emissions, Cu consumption, primary energy consumption, patents, GDP, and installed capacity should be considered statistically significant. The model also allowed us to determine the nature of the variables. Additionally, the authors wrote the WEKR 2.0 program, which allowed to determine the necessary amount of critical raw materials needed to build the planned PV energy generating capacity. Solar energy in Poland currently covers about 5% of the country's electricity demand. The pace of development of photovoltaic installations has exceeded current expectations and forecasts included in the Polish Energy Policy until 2040 (PEP2040). The built model showed that if the explanatory variables introduced into the model continue to be subject to the same trends shaping them, a dynamic increase in photovoltaic energy production should be expected by 2025. The model indicates that the PEP2040 goal of increasing the installed capacity to 16 GW by 2040 can be achieved already in 2025, where the PV production volume could reach 8921 GWh. Models were also made taking into account individual critical raw materials such as Cu, Si, Ge, and Ga. Each of them showed statistical significance, which means that access to critical raw materials in the future will have a significant impact on the further development of photovoltaic installations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increasing share of renewable sources in the energy mix, there is a need to balance energy production from weather-dependent sources, such as wind turbines and photovoltaics. This is also a current global trend associated with climate policy. In Poland, there has been a significant increase in energy production from renewable sources, leading to a duck curve phenomenon mainly in the case of photovoltaics, which requires balancing this production through various measures. One possible way to achieve this is energy storage installation. This article identifies the need for energy storage to ensure the stability of electricity production from low-flexibility sources like coal-based power plants. For this purpose, a methodology has been developed to determine the daily minimum energy storage capacities which would also allow for the integration of other stable (though less flexible) energy sources, such as nuclear power. In the case of Poland, energy storage has been estimated to require, as a median value, approximately 6 GWh of additional storage capacity, which is equivalent to twice the planned capacity of the Młoty Pumped Storage Power Plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of small district heating systems (DHS) in Poland are supplied with coal and do not have a status of efficient ones according to Energy Efficiency Directive. They should transform into efficient ones by taking an appropriate measures by the end of 2035. At the same time, a significant reduction of CO 2 emissions is expected in this sector. One of the possible solution for such systems is to apply unites fueled with fuels alternative to coal such as biomass. Cost benefits analysis of implementation a biomass ORC (Organic Rankine Cycle) cogeneration unit in municipal district heating system of 22 MW thermal capacity is the subject of the paper. The research included building configuration scenarios of a heat source regarding ORC size and operation modes. Different economic inputs such as electricity, fuel and European Union Allowance (EUA) for CO 2 prices as well as financial support mechanisms were considered. Economic indexes (Net Present Value, Internal Rate of Return and payback times) have been derived for both Polish and German conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities have always been places that generate problems, but also places where solutions are born. In recent years, cities have become a testing ground for finding and testing solutions to overcome the climate crisis. The subject of the paper is Nature-based Solutions (NbSs) that strengthen the resilience to climate change, influence urban spaces, and improve the quality of life of residents. The study focusses on the identification of NbSs, the diagnosis of its participation in local adaptation activities, and a comparative analysis of the activities planned and implemented in 44 large Polish cities in 2017–2023. The authors analyse data from 44 Polish cities, based on the types of NbSs implemented in European cities that carried out the URBAN GreenUP project. The results of the study show that Polish cities, while introducing sustainable urban lifestyles through NbSs, do not take advantage of all the opportunities inherent in these solutions. They focus on greening urban spaces and implement water interventions and singular green infrastructure measures to a lesser extent. There is negligible use of innovative and energy-using activities. The quantitative data obtained can be used to identify the gaps and potentials in the use of nature-based solutions in the adaptation of Polish cities to climate change and energy transformation. The aim of this work is also to identify recommendations to incorporate NbSs into urban adaptation policies in Poland. The authors conclude that the research conducted can serve to improve the knowledge on the links between NbS planning in adaptation activities and their implementation in urban spaces. An awareness of NbS gaps can influence the intensification of research on the implementation of innovative adaptation solutions, including energy-based solutions. The results obtained can also contribute to a better organisation of urban policies that aim to increase the resilience of cities to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transformation of the energy system using hydrogen energy is one of the key challenges facing the world today. The problem primarily concerns the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which is necessary to stop climate change. The current energy system is mainly based on fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas and oil, which are the source of greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time, the demand for energy is increasing, which in turn contributes to the increase in emissions. Hydrogen energy is a potential solution to the emission problem, because hydrogen is a clean energy carrier, the combustion of which does not emit CO2 or other harmful substances. What's more, hydrogen can be produced from renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind or water energy, thanks to which its production can be completely environmentally neutral. However, there are many problems associated with the use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. First of all, hydrogen cannot be obtained directly from nature - it must be produced from other substances, which requires energy consumption and often has low energy efficiency. In addition, hydrogen is very light and requires a large volume to be stored in gaseous form, posing challenges to storage and transportation infrastructure. Another problem is the high cost of hydrogen production, especially in the case of green hydrogen, which is produced from renewable energy sources. The implementation of new hydrogen technologies also requires investment in infrastructure, which is costly and takes time. In addition, not all countries yet have appropriate legal regulations and policies that support the development of hydrogen technologies. The challenges associated with the use of hydrogen energy are manifold and require an interdisciplinary approach that takes into account technological as well as economic, social and political aspects. However, with the development of technologies and energy policies favoring the green transition, hydrogen energy can play a key role in the future energy system. The article uses a wide range of analysis of source documents, case studies, statistical data analysis and SWOT analysis for the above topics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The success of energy transition relies on what happens in the contact zone, the area between citizens and municipality governments, which still awaits more thorough research. This article employs the concept of the contact zone both as a theory describing processes of developing energy prosumerism on a local level, and as a research method which enables one to uncover phenomena that are critical to attaining climate objectives. The research field was the Warmia and Mazury Province in Poland, which is the region with the lowest socio-economic potential both in Poland and in the European Union. The analyzed contact zone was divided into two parts: the human administrative legal contact zone and the more-than-human energy contact zone. To describe the relationships occurring in these subzones, the authors used empirical data originating from a survey addressed to citizens living in the above province. The aim was to explore the respondents' knowledge about current prosumption processes and the opportunities to implement them in the local government sector. Multiple correspondence analysis was used to analyze the data. The main findings were the low knowledge of citizens about prosumption, which was represented by a large number of the prosumption principles not indicated by the respondents, and—on the other hand—the evidence that local communities expect the implementation of digital prosumption, which they know from the market sector, in public administration. It was also demonstrated that the absence of citizens' involvement in the energy transition is a consequence of two historic colonialisms, German and Russian, which had a huge influence on the emergence of an autocratic management style in the analyzed region. Comparison of the analyzed contact zones with two reference zones showed that grassroots movements in the province are initiated mainly by external factors of a nationwide character. In the Warmia and Mazury contact zones, civic initiatives are in the early stage of development, although they display all features of developed zones, such as autoethnographic gestures, transculturation, struggle, violence, and anti-conquest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of the article is to identify and assess the impact of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) on job creation. Research Design & Methods: The study offers an overview of an empirical nature. A review of pertinent literature allows the author to identify, classify, and summarize the most recent scientific reports, both theoretical and empirical, with regard to that particular area of enquiry. Relying on the methodology of systematic literature review, it has been possible to distinguish a database of scientific studies (Scopus, Research Gate, and Google Scholar databases) and studies-reports by, e.g. ILO, IRENA, REN21, EurObserv'ER, Eurostat and Statistics Poland; most applicable studies were subsequently selected to be analysed and verified in terms of their usefulness for further research. The empirical part of the article includes tabulated figures showing employment changes for particular RES technologies and by means of three basic parameters, it illustrates the condition of the labour market in Poland. The strength and direction of the relationship between the analysed variables were computed using Pearson's linear correlation coefficient. Findings: A review and study of relevant literature yielded synthetic knowledge concerning the impact of renewable energy sources on job creation. The research demonstrated a positive correlation between the number of employed in RES and the activity rate, as well as the employment rate while displaying a negative correlation with the unemployment rate. Implications & Recommendations: Using up-to-date assessments of job opportunities resulting from the energy transition should inspire politicians and energy sector managers to develop integrated energy, environmental, and labour market policies aimed at sustainable development and job creation in the green economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to determine how the public perceives the directions of decarbonization to develop a sustainable energy strategy for Poland. The political challenge is to use dedicated funds and grants to move from the energy market to low-carbon technology. For sustainable development, governments must implement an environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and socially acceptable policy. The risk of social acceptance plays a vital role in Poland, especially in Silesia, influencing the decarbonization process. The study's main objective was to identify socio-economic features that affect the assessment of the decarbonization process in Poland, assuming that respondents used central or local funds to carry out this process. The authors deepened the multidisciplinary aspect of the analysis of decarbonization, mainly pointing to social issues, which was presented in the article. The study was conducted using the "snowball" method on a group of 444 socially diverse people. They were based on non-parametric statistical methods: Chi-square, Mann–Whitney U, and the Kruskal–Wallis test, which showed that the most effective factors in the decarbonization process are subsidies used by local governments. Moreover, it was found that people with higher education give less support to the centralization of funds for decarbonization, though they perceive that local funds provide a greater chance of success for decarbonization processes. This study fills the gap in social sciences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen is an energy carrier in which hopes are placed for an easier achievement of climate neutrality. Together with electrification, energy efficiency development, and RES, hydrogen is expected to enable the ambitious energy goals of the European Green Deal. Hence, the aim of the article is to query the development of the hydrogen economy in the Visegrad Group countries (V4). The study considers six diagnostic features: sources of hydrogen production, hydrogen legislation, financial mechanisms, objectives included in the hydrogen strategy, environmental impact of H2, and costs of green hydrogen investments. The analysis also allowed to indicate the role that hydrogen will play in the energy transition process of the V4 countries. The analysis shows that the V4 countries have similar approaches to the development of the hydrogen market, but the hydrogen strategies published by each of the Visegrad countries are not the same. Each document sets goals based on the hydrogen production to date and the specifics of the domestic energy and transport sectors, as there are no solutions that are equally effective for all. Poland's hydrogen strategy definitely stands out the strongest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the global characteristics of the Polish manufacturing industry and the structure of its energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions related to direct emission as a result of fuel combustion and indirect emission as a result of electricity consumption. The share of individual sectors in energy consumption and emission levels was determined, and the changes in this share over the last 20 years were determined. A method for determining the carbon productivity index for the emissions of individual industries with the use of global macroeconomic indicators was proposed. The index allows for the comparison of the productivity of individual industries, regardless of the nature of production. The change in carbon productivity in Polish industry over time was presented. On this basis, it was assessed which industries are particularly promising in terms of decarbonising the Polish industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy transformation in the European Union countries is progressing. Its scope is defined by formal and legal regulations and its effectiveness by the position of decision-makers, legitimised by public support for a particular type of challenge. Both issues are the focus of this article. The promotion of environmental protection measures is currently strongly promoted globally. Hence the widespread acceptance in principle of the changes associated with the implementing of the Green New Deal in the energy sector is not surprising. However, to what extent is knowledge of the solutions constituting the mainstream transition (renewable energy sources) ingrained among communities? Does the level of public awareness influence individual consumer choices, modelling the market? The threads outlined above inspired deliberations focused on analysing the assumptions behind energy transition in the EU, with particular reference to the countries directly bordering the line of the ongoing conflict in Ukraine (Poland, Lithuania), in the light of the resulting and escalating restrictions exacerbating the energy crisis. The immediate neighbourhood of the adopted countries, and their similar socio-economic conditions, provided the basis for comparisons and conclusions. The motivation for the choice of the issue and research area was to fill the clear information gap in this study area, strictly in relation to the adopted configuration of these countries. The research proceedings in the outlined area were primarily based on the methodology appropriate for capture and analysis of economic phenomena, enriched with the results of our own findings (questionnaire survey regarding general knowledge of the ZE market and consumer preferences), in order to assess the economic and environmental dimensions of energy transition in Poland and Lithuania and to assess the level of public awareness in this respect in the countries under study. The presented research is an important complementary element of the authors' series of studies devoted to the analysis of the development of the renewable energy market in Poland and the Baltic States, related to the individual dimensions of RES. Their results give rise to the conclusion that increased social awareness in these countries determines the popularisation of RES solutions in individual use, regardless of their type, stimulating the progress of the energy transformation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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• Applies the concept of branching points in energy transition pathways study. • Shows marked improvement of the labour market conditions for the coal transition. • Identifies homogeneity of the employment structures of mining subregions and mines. • Points that projected workforce shortages will create opportunities for structural mismatch mitigation. We study the labour market transition pathways driven by the coal phase-out in Poland between 1990 and 2050. We apply the concept of branching points to describe the coal transition in the context of structural and labour supply changes and educational upgrading. We show that in the 1990s and 2000s, job opportunities for miners were scarce, as the trajectories of all of these trends deteriorated their labour market prospects. As these trends have reversed in the 2010s, the future employment outlook of the coal phase-out in Poland is more favourable than it was in the past. We find that the employment structures of mining subregions and mines are homogenous, which enables regional approaches to manage the transition. Decarbonisation will lead to a surplus of Polish hard coal mining workers from 2030 on, yet the projected shortages of workers in other sectors will create opportunities for reallocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union's climate policy and the energy transition associated with it force individual countries, their economies and their industrial sectors to carry out thorough changes, often of a deep, high-cost and restructuring nature. The aim of the article is to provide a multidimensional assessment of the forms and effects of the restructuring of coal mining companies in Poland in light of the current energy transition process. The research problem is encapsulated within the following two interdependent questions: Has the restructuring process allowed the coal mining industry to achieve sufficient efficiency to sustainably compete in the open market, and to what extent, if at all, have the objectives of restructuring been achieved from the perspective of changes in the energy mix? The research covers all coal mining companies included in the official statistics. It adopts a long-term perspective (1990–2020), dating from the beginning of the systemic transformation in Poland. The research involved the use of multivariate financial analysis methods, including the logit model for predicting the degree of financial threat, as well as taxonomic methods for assessing the dissimilarity of structures and their concentration. The general conclusion of the research is that there has been a lack of consistency (follow-up) between the forms and effects of restructuring in coal mining companies in Poland on the one hand and changes in the composition of the country's energy mix as a result of the energy transition on the other. In particular, this means that such restructuring, being neither effective nor efficient, has failed to accelerate change in the energy mix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind energy (WE), which is one of the renewable energy (RE) sources for generating electricity, has been making a significant contribution to obtaining clean and green energy in recent years. Fitting an appropriate statistical distribution to the wind speed (WS) data is crucial in analyzing and estimating WE potential. Once the best suitable statistical distribution for WS data is determined, WE potential and potential yield could be estimated with high accuracy. The main objective of this paper is to propose a novel approach for calculating wind energy potential. For this purpose, the Efficient Global Optimization (EGO) technique was proposed for fitting a statistical distribution to WS data and the performance of the technique was compared with genetic algorithm (GA), simulated annealing (SA), and differential evolution (DE). Performance metrics showed that EGO is providing better estimations compared with GA, SA, and DE. Based on Weibull parameters obtained by using EGO, potential WE and potential annual revenue were estimated for Gdańsk, which is the capital of Pomerania Voivodeship in Poland, in the case of having city-type wind turbines in the city center. Estimations for Gdańsk showed that city-type wind turbines might be helpful for producing electricity from WE in the city without being limited by constraints such as having a long distance between wind turbines and buildings. If such wind turbines were erected on the roofs of residential buildings, malls, or office buildings, there is a possibility that part of the electric energy needed for such buildings could be generated using WE. However, this topic should be further investigated from technical and financial perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We confront empirical data on citizen-led renewable energy capacities in Poland with results obtained from a meta-theoretical, empirical analysis of the national energy system. We elicit and rank essential disabling and enabling factors that explain the current low level of citizen energy in Poland. Altogether, we estimate the contributions of individual and collective prosumers as amounting to about 3.2 GW, with PV installations contributing more than 90%. Most activities are rather recent and come from individual prosumers. The factors with the greatest explanatory power are connected with decades of a rigid, centralized Polish energy system going hand in hand with social, regulatory, and technical lock-ins. Strikingly, factors connected with the heritage of, and transition from, the socialist period are less important, but they do explain why substantially more contributions originate from individuals compared to collective prosumers. Our results show that the currently rather small size of citizen-installed renewable capacities and the modest number of collective initiatives in Poland are due to several barriers. This paper summarizes them and provides a novel scientific method of ranking enabling and disabling factors. This approach might be helpful for policymakers and social actors, seeking an answer to the perspectives of development of citizen-installed renewable energy capacities in Poland and other former Eastern Bloc countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grasping how individual choices and exogenous factors shape agents' environmental preferences is essential to comprehending societal trends in pro-environmental behaviour. To this end, this paper proposes the concept of "individual environmental capital". It investigates how an individual's past pro-environmental decisions relate to their future ones, particularly in terms of willingness to pay for improvements in air quality. A randomised information treatment choice experiment was conducted in Poland to gauge individual environmental capital, accounting for physical assets and expressed policy preferences. The investigation found that willingness to pay varied depending on levels of prior investment in environmental assets and declared support for environmental regulations. Results demonstrate that highlighting one's past pro-climate endeavours may fail to differentiate the valuation of environmental protection among those who have already invested in environmental capital. However, it does seem to relate to a higher valuation for those yet to transition their energy systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents various aspects of harnessing solar energy and green hydrogen which is one of the objectives of the EU and Poland's energy transition. Theoretical issues were examined on the basis of the analysis of available source literature on renewable energy sources (RES), green hydrogen and energy transition. The research methods used in this paper include: critical analysis of the source literature, comparative analysis method and secondary data analysis. The article describes actions taken in Poland to facilitate the energy transition associated with harnessing solar energy and green hydrogen and presents author's diagram of energy transition related to RES and green hydrogen in EU and Poland. The analysis and assessment carried out in the article indicated that the new concept of operation of the entire energy market and its transition involves the integration of three sectors: transport, heat engineering and power engineering. In the future, green hydrogen will enable a reduction of CO 2 emissions from the power engineering and heat engineering sector to zero. Importantly, the electrification of heat engineering and transport based on domestic renewable energy sources will render Poland independent of the energy resources from other countries. The issues as presented in the article concerning renewable energy sources, green hydrogen and energy transition have not been collectively studied in Polish and foreign literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this article is to identify the chances of further development of biogas production as a way to diverisfy the structure of energy production in Poland. Another one is to analyse biogas production as a part of getting closer to achieving the targets of the climate and energy framework of the European Union and Polish long-term energy sector strategies. Research Design & Methods: The research methods used in the study include: the analysis and study of the literature, heuristic techniques for data analysis, the SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis. Findings: The production of biogas can be beneficial for local economic growth, environmental awareness, and social wellbeing. There is a strong need to overcome the barriers of further development of biogas production as well as analyse the opportunities, given that a type of renewable energy source is further developed. Biogas production can help meet the national and international goals concerning energy transition, developing low-carbon economies, and addressing modern economic trends. Implications / Recommendations: The aim of this paper is to investigate the chances of further development of biogas production in spite of current changes in Polish agendas. The topic is of great importance when analysing the strategy of Poland to develop a low-carbon economy. It is also a significant part of current discussions between the scientific community and business practitioners in terms of energy transition in Poland. What is worth noting is that Polish strategies concerning the development of renewable energy production should be aligned with the climate and energy targets of the European Union, which can prove problematic. Polish energy mix is still based on energy production from coal, while the EU is steadily increasing gross energy production from renewable energy sources. Contribution / Value Added: The analysis defines the role of biogas in circular economy as well as in modern economy with the consideration of environmental economics and sustainable development. It underlines the importance of biogas in energy transition in Poland, taking into consideration the Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (Pol. Polityka energetyczna Polski do 2040 r.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The natural gas seems to be an attractive supplement to the renewable energy sources in energy transition towards low carbon emissions. Given its flexibility to transmit and store, the natural gas offers a diversity of the renewables. Understanding the formation of natural gas prices is crucial for evaluating the costs of energy transition, in particular the return to investment into natural gas infrastructure. Research Design & Methods: In order to study the natural gas prices dynamics in Poland, I developed a Vector Error Correction model (VECM) for a joint determination with prices in the USA and in Europe. The VECM setup made it possible to analyse the interactions among non-stationary prices as well as investigate how disturbances specific to the discussed markets pass on within the system. Findings: By exploring impulse response functions and forecast error variance decompositions, I demonstrate that the European natural gas prices are not affected by shocks in the American gas market, as they are determined solely by the shocks specific to the European natural gas market. Additionally, the natural gas prices in Poland are highly correlated with, and responsive to, other European countries’ prices. The results go in line with the hypothesis of the existence of a common, integrated European natural gas market. Implications / Recommendations: In the context of energy transition, the return to investment within natural gas infrastructure can only be forecast given the predicted prices. The appropriate proportion of alternative energy sources in the energy mix can be achieved only after examining this dynamics and the differences in prices of alternative energy commodities. Hence, the feasibility of predicting natural gas prices should always be considered at the early stages of any energy transition policy. Contribution / Value Added: The results add to the discussion on the role of natural gas in energy transition. They reveal how gas prices on the main markets have fluctuated over the recent years as well as they link the prices in Poland to natural gas prices abroad. The findings fill the gap in the literature, which so far has been focused mainly in the American market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The share of renewable sources in energy production in Poland is increasing steadily, but the reliability of energy supplies is determined primarily by stable sources, i.e. the coal-fired power units now in operation. The paper compares the current energy mix of the Polish power generation system with other European countries, drawing attention to the dominant role of coal-fired sources in Poland. Recent-year changes in the structure of the energy system are presented, along with the changes planned to ensure reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. It is demonstrated that the planned changes in the energy mix will significantly deteriorate the level of reliability of energy supplies in subsequent years of transition. Variants are presented of necessary adjustments in the planned energy mix in the system, which will make it possible to meet the growing national demand for energy and ensure the required level of the energy system reliability. Several variants of the system expansion are considered, including gas-fired units, onshore and offshore wind farms, photovoltaic sources and a slower rate of decommissioning the coal-fired power units retrofitted with CO 2 capture facilities. The most favourable solution for the system reconstruction is to increase the share of all the above-mentioned energy sources. • Demand for power in the Polish energy system until 2035 was estimated. • Very low reliability of the planned power system has been demonstrated. • Reconstruction variants of the energy system, which increase its reliability, are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates factors driving citizen participation in renewable energy communities (RECs) using demographically representative surveys including a discrete choice experiment on attributes of RECs and a contingent valuation experiment on intended amounts of investment in RECs in France, Germany, and Poland. We investigate, in particular, whether municipalities can incentivize citizens to invest in RECs by offering to match their investments and examine the effect of small probabilities of losing the entire investment. Further, we analyze the role of preferences, capabilities, and social factors that have not or only scarcely been studied in the context of RECs. Our results provide evidence that matching by the municipality has a positive effect on citizen investment. Further, ruling out even small risks of losing the entire investment may substantially increase citizen participation in RECs. The experiments suggest that investments in RECs are related to willingness to take risks and willingness to take losses. Individual capabilities (i.e. financial literacy, experience), social norms, place identity, and trust in local government also seem to spur citizen investment in RECs. • Stated preferences for renewable energy communities (RECs) in three countries. • Discrete choice experiment and contingent valuation experiment on RECs. • Investments in RECs increase if they are matched by the respondent's municipality. • The possibility that the investment is lost negatively affects propensity to invest. • Individual preferences, capabilities and social factors predict stated investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The institutions of the European Union place a clear emphasis on the importance of energy transition. However, the speed and scope of actions aiming at achieving climate neutrality of economies varies in the different member states. Poland, with an economy based on coal and a particular emphasis on the demands of energy security, appears to be especially sluggish in this respect, despite external and internal pressure from diverse stakeholders expecting particular decisions. The subject literature to date has analysed the structural – economic, political and historical-cultural – difficulties of phasing out coal. This article gives further attention to the causes by analysing the temporality of energy policy, a rarely analysed subject in the literature. It examines various temporal structures in functional systems, questioning how politics, science, economics and social movements designate the future horizons, which concepts of time influence their observations of the environments and how they affect the relationships of expectations and decisions. The discordance of temporal structures generates sources of uncertainty and induces an autoimmunological reaction of the system. • Energy transition is observed as having different temporality in each of the functional subsystems. • Different temporalities are related to different expectations on energy transition. • The stakeholders participation in the processes of energy governance controlls autoimmunity for the political system. • Discordance of temporality is recognised by politics and incorporated into the area of its actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current international works on strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation cite energy transition as one of the main challenges of the 21st century. Many social, economic, and ecological aspects have to be addressed, especially in regions which, for decades, relied on coal energy. One of those are changes in spatial planning and land use, which will significantly affect the landscape of those regions. One of these examples is Silesian Voivodship in Poland, where the coal-mining tradition dates back to the 17th century. This research focuses on the question of how and where renewable energy development is planned in the Silesian Voivodship, based on provisions from local spatial polices and to what extent post-mining and industrial sites are planned to be reused and how many other types of landscapes would be transformed into renewable energy landscapes. We argue that permitting development of renewable energy (RE) without appropriate regulations on where and how it should be developed may contribute to irreversible changes in the landscape and, as a result, to its degradation. Methods consisted of query and analyses of available publications, datasets, strategy and planning documents, both at regional and municipal level. The main results show that existing renewable energy and its development is mainly planned away from mining and post-mining industrial areas. In the future, this will have a significant impact on the transformation of, e.g., rural, natural and agricultural landscapes into new industrial energy landscapes, changing views and perception of these places. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an evaluation of the stranding risks of coal in Poland. Combining an industrial organization and financial analysis approach, we assess the current economic situation of companies operating within the coal industry and draft forecasts for the future. Based on the global economic outlook for coal, we claim that phasing-out coal will take at least two decades, due to the slow transformation of the energy sector and increasing energy demand. The financial evaluation of coal-dependent companies revealed sound financial conditions due to favorable trends in coal prices in international markets. Therefore, instead of prioritizing a rapid phasing-out of coal, we pledge to make more technological investments that would make burning coal less harmful for the planet and thus efficiently mitigate the negative effects of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ongoing climate changes necessitate an effective climate policy. The energy transition is now an important topic and problem, especially in Poland. (1) The undertaken analysis of the problem of energy transition is important for political, social and technological reasons. Political, because it shows the weakness of the implementation of Polish energy policy in regards to climate change. Social, because energy transition will bring about significant social changes in the largest industrial region of Poland. Technological, as the departure from fossil fuels requires the introduction of other sources of energy on a massive scale, for which Poland is not prepared. The aim of the study was to critically analyse the activities to date in the field of energy transition in Poland. The second goal of the analysis was an attempt to answer the question of whether the process of energy transition and achieving the goals set in the EU's European Green Deal are possible at all until 2050. (2) To achieve the goals, the system method and the decision-making method were primarily used. These methods allowed for an examination of the main determinants of the Polish energy transformation. (3) The main results include the confirmation, contrary to the announcements of the Polish government, that despite the adoption in Poland of the strategy "Poland's energy policy until 2040", the effective implementation of the energy transition before 2050 is not only very difficult, but may even be impossible to implement in the assumed time. This is due to political, economic, social and technological conditions. Coal energy is outdated, expensive and ineffective. Due to natural conditions, wind energy is not able to meet the energy demand of the industry. The development of nuclear energy is only in the planning phase. (4) To sum up, in the next thirty years, Poland will not be able to achieve the assumed effects of the energy transition, which is in contradiction with the official declaration of the government. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capacity remuneration mechanisms operate in many European countries. In 2018, Poland implemented a centralized capacity market to ensure appropriate funding for the existing and new power generation units to improve long-term energy security. One of the declarations made while the mechanism was deployed was its beneficial influence on incentives for investments in new units. In this context, this paper aims to analyze the effects of the capacity mechanism adopted for investments in new power generation units that may be financed under the capacity market mechanism in Poland. The analysis is conducted for four types of capacity market units, the existing, refurbishing, planned, and demand-side response types, and includes the final results of capacity auctions. The results prove that the primary beneficiaries of the capacity market in Poland have been the existing units (including the refurbishing ones) responsible for more than 80% of capacity obligation volumes contracted for 2021–2025. Moreover, during the implementation of the capacity market in Poland, the planned units that signed long-term capacity contracts with a total share of 12% of the whole market were already at the advanced phases of construction, and the investment decisions were made long before the implementation of the capacity market mechanism. Therefore, they were not associated with the financial support from the capacity market. The study indicates that the capacity market did not bring incentives for investments in new power generation units in the investigated period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainability and decarbonisation are buzzwords in today's economy. The fossil fuel sector has had a great impact on development of many countries and it is interesting how this sector is going to survive in the era of climate neutrality imposed by the European and national decarbonisation policies. PKN Orlen is one of the largest industrial corporations in Poland and Central Europe representing the energy and fossil fuel sector. The article sets out to identify the main areas of PKN Orlen's strategic plans resulting from the energy transition process in Poland. For this reason, the research question posed in this study is: to what extent and in what direction has Poland's energy policy influenced the new strategy of PKN Orlen? Poland's most recent energy policy was adopted in 2021, therefore an attempt to assess the impact of this policy on the strategy of a large player in the fossil fuel sector in such a short time horizon proves the originality of the study. The applied methodological approach, including case study, comparative analysis, and in-depth interview, was determined by the specific nature of the research problem and the fact that the analyzed sector and entity are strategic from the point of view of the country's economy, which imposes the confidentiality of some data related to the study and determines the possibility of making them public. As shown by the research, PEP2040 had an indirect impact on shaping the strategy of PKN Orlen, while the main source of knowledge about the current and future trends is the analysis, evaluation and synthesis of various sources of information, including those from consulting companies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the land use conflict. Coal exploitation precludes agricultural production and, as a result, mining-energy projects come across NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) opposition from the farming community. An investigation was carried out in two rural communes: Krobia and Miejska Górka in the Wielkopolska Region in Poland. The aim was to obtain an answer to the following questions: (1) if acting in the name of energy security, should we accept the state government interest and start exploitation of the lignite resource? (2) If acting in the name of landowners' rights, should we accept the local community interest and maintain the current farming production? and (3) is it possible to reconcile the interests of the conflict beneficiaries? The following qualitative methods were used: keyword and content analysis of word data, such as scientific papers, legal documents, and parliamentary questions (PQs), while the discourse analysis was focused on the policy and procedural conflicts. In the results section, possible solutions for heading off the conflict are presented. The results contribute to an integrated understanding of conflicts over mining and farming land use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since energy transition has become a necessity, many countries are developing decarbonization plans and looking for ways to reduce CO2 emissions. The process takes different forms, most often being affected by local conditions, which means that it takes place in each country differently, due to the country's social and economic specifics. One of the countries that has just started its energy transition process is Poland. The case of Poland is extremely interesting, as it is a country whose economy is still heavily dependent on coal and there are very strong traditions related to this particular source of energy. On the other hand, Poland has two very good reasons to move away from coal. The complexity and comprehensiveness of the energy transition results, among other things, from the diversity of actors involved in this issue and the multiplicity of their, often conflicting, interests. Using a critical discourse analysis, this paper attempts to show how those actors attempt to shape the transition through the discourses which they generate. The study covers the media discourse that took place in Poland between September 2020 and May 2021, i.e., a time when the Polish government negotiated with representatives of the miners' trade unions the terms of Poland's transition from coal. A critical analysis of the texts that appeared in the media during this time provides a picture of how different groups of social actors perceive the transition and how they try to manage that process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-term energy scenarios form the basis of energy policy-making. In practice, the use of energy scenarios for the effective creation of energy policy differs in each country. Therefore, the aim of this study is to present two possible scenarios for the development of the Polish energy sector, resulting from the current national policy and international commitments of Poland. The study examined the development of the energy mix in Poland in the 2040 perspective, in accordance with the strategic document Energy Policy of Poland (PEP 2040). The analysis took into account four diagnostic features: electricity production, electricity price, the share of renewable energy sources (RES) in final energy consumption, and CO2 emission reduction. In addition, the analysis allowed for the presentation of the implications for the Polish economy and society after the application of the diversified variant with nuclear energy and the diversified variant with natural gas. Both scenarios assume too slow development of RES, and the ambivalent attitude of the Polish political elite towards zero-emission energy sources significantly hinders the development of some of its forms (e.g., onshore wind energy). Unfortunately, both the first and second variants entail a large increase in electricity prices, which will affect the entire economy and increase the level of energy poverty among Poles. The study provides strategic insights on the consequences of Poland's choice of a specific energy transformation scenario. The results may serve as a starting point for understanding Poland's restraint towards achieving zero emissions and contribute to the discussion of the direction of development of the Polish energy sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, numerous countries have introduced or considered capacity markets as remuneration mechanisms for long-term capacity adequacy. Since adequacy is frequently linked with thermal power generation, there is an ongoing debate as to whether this instrument could impact decarbonisation. In this context, the paper presents a quantitative assessment of the consequences of introducing a capacity market on decarbonisation pathways. The Polish power system is taken as an example due to its heavy dependence on fossil fuels. To this end, a computable model of the Polish power system is developed and applied to the study of two research scenarios. The first scenario presents the power system without introducing a capacity market, while the latter considers the system with a capacity market in place. The analysis shows that the introduction of a capacity market delays the decarbonisation of the power system and has a negative impact on carbon neutrality. Even though coal-fired units are phased out, they are mainly replaced by natural gas. The method and model developed within this study can be applied to countries where a capacity market is being discussed, and fossil fuels continue to play a dominant role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A key question for European energy transition is which forms of renewable energy technologies will play a central role in this process. The recent dynamic growth in offshore wind power together with the vast wind energy potential of the European seas, including the Baltic Sea, make this technology an increasingly attractive and viable option. Considering the high installation and connection costs, government support is considered essential for the development of offshore wind power. The aim of this article is to analyze Poland's public policy tools, which govern offshore wind farm development, and to present them from a wider geostrategic perspective. Authors identify, classify, and evaluate individual public policy tools with the use of multi-criteria and multi-dimensional methods while explaining their impact on offshore wind development in Poland. The analysis of the individual tools has shown that the currently applied tools give a high probability of achieving public policy objectives. The characteristics of the applied tools prove that vital decisions on offshore wind energy have been made concerning the need for decarbonization but also regarding wider geostrategic calculations. Given the changing security dynamics in the Baltic Sea region, we highlight potential geostrategic risks to the implementation of offshore wind projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the beginning of the 1990s, due to international regulations on air quality, a large number of flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) installations have been constructed in the Polish coal-fired power industry. Thanks to that, SO2 capture in this industry increased to ca. 90%. Since wet lime or fluidized bed boilers were mostly used for FGD purposes, a significant increase in the domestic demand for lime sorbents has been reported. Between 1994 and 2019, it has increased from virtually zero before 1994 to about 3.3–3.4 million tpy (tonnes per year) today. On the basis of official governmental data and completed surveys of the Polish power companies, the paper analyses the process of the implementation of FGD in Poland along with limestone sorbents consumption and FGD gypsum production in the Polish coal-fired power plants. It also presents the current and potential limestone resource base for production of limestone sorbents applied in FGD. Electric energy mix in Poland is expected to be changed radically in the coming 30 years. Share of coal-based electricity is still very high—ca. 80%—and it will remain dominant for at least next decade. With the next coming FGD installations, further moderate increase of limestone sorbents consumption is expected, up to 3.7 million tpy in 2030. After 2030, a significant, quick decrease of share of coal-fired electricity is expected in Poland, down to max. 30% just before 2050. This will result in a gradual decrease in limestone sorbent demand, to max. 1.3 million tpy before 2050 and virtually zero after 2050, which will be followed by collapse of FGD gypsum production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of a massive reduction of CO 2 -emissions results in a move away from fossil fuels. In the hot strip production of steel, almost exclusively gas-fired furnaces are currently used due to the lower energy costs. On the contrary, it is imperative to convert existing fossil heated processes to CO 2 -free (green) technologies in the context of the energy-transition. Obvious alternatives are electrical heating or hydrogen combustion, both strongly dependent on the specific electricity generation mix that determines the CO 2 -emissions. In this case study, different process heat generation options for continuous reheating furnaces in steel hot rolling mills are discussed by a quantitative approach. A state-of-the-art reheating furnace fired with natural gas is used as reference case, while electrical heating, hydrogen-air heating and hydrogen-oxygen heating are the alternatives investigated. The energy balances, the primary energy consumption and the resulting CO 2 -emissions are compared for the three countries of France, Poland and Germany with regard to the country-specific electricity generation mix. Additionally, the possible development until 2050 is analysed. The results show the high impact of continuous reheating furnaces in steel hot rolling mills on the total CO 2 -emissions of downstream steel processing. Furthermore, the massive increase in electrical energy consumption of the whole steel production process is highlighted. Each investigated alternative shows a significant potential to save CO 2 -emissions, depending on the country specific electricity generation mix and the future expansion of renewable energy sources. An increase in H 2 -production efficiency will both lead to a lower primary energy consumption and lower CO 2 -emissions for reheating furnaces. • Reheating furnaces have a high impact on CO 2 -emissions in downstream steel processing. • Primary energy consumption changes based on process heat generation alternative. • Alternative technologies show big potential to emit less CO 2 than state-of-the-art. • Potential savings depend on technology and country-specific electricity generation mix. • CO 2 -emissions could be further reduced by increased H 2 -production efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy transition is surely not only about the technological change, but it also has to necessarily reflect socio-cultural and environmental transformations on the local level. Hence, local communities' energy literacy belongs to the crucial elements in designing successful energy transition and strengthening rural resilience. Energy literacy is a concept widely related to the multifaceted phenomenon of energy consumption, both in its individual and collective dimensions. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to analyse the level of energy literacy in rural conditions, considering its three key dimensions (awareness, attitude, and behaviour). Our reflective considerations about energy literacy build on the current knowledge that stress its importance for the reinforcement of rural resilience. The case study, Zławieś Wielka, in the north-central Poland, was selected where a social survey (N = 300) on the relation between energy literacy and rural resilience was conducted. By means of employing the cross-tabulations method for data analyses, our results signal that certain indications of the ecological awareness among the rural residents are being formed. Our findings clearly suggest that, on the one hand, the needs for more environmentally reasonable management with energy, including electricity and heat, come to the fore. On the other hand, various types of investments in improving the energy efficiency of residential buildings and utilising energy generation from renewable energy sources are observed. It seems that the surveyed community has a clear potential to become the vector for sustainable and just energy transition of the countryside. The essential conditions that urgently need to be implemented to ensure the viability of rural energy transition are the educational reinforcement within the community and more generous long-term institutional support from the central government, targeted on endogenous development and enhancing the local social capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The topic of the article considers the functioning of the renewable energy (RE) sector in Poland. This is really important in the context of the energy transition of the national economy because it influences the creation of modern technologies and increases the competitiveness and innovation of the country. Poland is in a process of energy transition where the RE sector has been developing for two decades. The authors aimed to research the RE sector improvement possibilities in Poland, including the influence of this sector on chosen social and economic aspects. Because of this research's aim a critical situation assessment of RE in Poland was conducted and a survey of a group of experts in this field was also involved. Legal, physical and mental determinants and their influence on RE sector were looked into. In the legal determinant context a necessity to simplify relevant legislation acts in Poland was found. Undoubtedly there is a need to improve several legal acts, including the Distance Act. In physical determinants it was found that solar, wind and biomass energy have the biggest chances for development. In the case of mental determinants the authors paid attention to the need of educating the public about using and obtaining energy. It is also important to make people aware how the RE sector influences the low emission economy positively. This will improve the creation of new jobs and reduce the emissions of harmful substances to the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]