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The year 2024 marks 20 years since Poland joined the European Union. In this paper, the authors review the economic literature analysing the longterm economic effects of Poland’s membership in the EU. Their study is based on international and Polish literature referring mainly to partial and general equilibrium analyses. They show both the sectoral effects, as related to different EU policies, as well as the overall consequences of membership for the level of welfare of Polish society. The authors first discuss the trade effects in the context of the removal of barriers to the movement of goods within the Single European Market. Next, the consequences of the inflow of funds from the EU budget which finance the country’s structural funds and the Common Agricultural Policy, which are of particular importance to the Polish economy are discussed. A review of the consequences of the inflow of foreign direct investment from EU countries to Poland and the effects of labour migration within the EU is then conducted. A review of the related welfare consequences by aggregating the effects of individual policies and making an overall assessment based on a synthetic control method is then summarised. The authors then refer to their estimations showing that, thanks to EU accession, Poland’s GDP per capita 15 years after accession was higher by almost 55% compared to the counterfactual scenario of non-accession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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It is frequently asserted that gastronomic services (or the hospitality sector) in Warsaw during the Occupation was, paradoxically, larger than before 1st September 1939. The evidence for this assertion, by known and highly respected authors, is argued here to be internally inconsistent even though their conclusions are largely the same. This paper comes to contrary conclusions, namely, that the scale of gastronomic services was smaller than before the war, though it was still surprisingly large, given the terrible conditions existing in the city. (Obviously, in either case, the evidence one draws upon can often be circumstantial and partial). The research draws on an analysis of telephone directories published in Poland from 1930 to 1945, some of which, but not all, are some of the sources used by the authors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main aim of this paper is to identify the anticipated political and social consequences for the security of Poland and its citizens due to the presence of hate speech in public discourse. A morphological method was used in the research. The paper consists of an introduction, three chapters and a conclusion. Introduction outlines the research problem and presents elements of research methodology. The second part provides examples of hate speech against refugees, migrants, national minorities, people with different culture, skin color, religion, while the third part characterizes attitudes and behaviors expressed in hate speech against LGBT people. The fourth part characterizes examples of hate language used in the political debate taking place in Poland. The conclusion summarizes the research results obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, environmental problems have gradually become the focus of world attention. In recent years, heat waves in many parts of Europe have increased ozone concentrations, fuelling ozone pollution. Therefore, this paper investigates the spatial and temporal distribution of tropospheric column ozone concentrations in South-western Europe, future trend changes, influencing factors, and potential source regions based on remotely sensed monitoring data from the OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instrument) from 2011 to 2021. The results show that the areas of high tropospheric column ozone concentrations are mainly concentrated in the northwest, Poland, and southeast coastal areas. At the same time, the monthly variation curve of column ozone concentration is bimodal. Trend change analyses indicate an upward trend in future column ozone concentrations in the southeastern part of the study area. The potential for increases also exists in parts of Germany, France, and Poland, which will need to be monitored. Random forest model projections found a slight decrease in column ozone concentrations in 2022 and 2023 of about 1–4 DU compared to tropospheric column ozone concentrations in 2021. The health risk assessment found that the number of all-cause premature deaths due to exposure to ozone was the highest in Germany. During the summer, when ozone pollution is high, the potential source area in the southeastern part of the study area is located at the border of the three countries, and synergistic management is recommended. In exploring the correlation between the influencing factors and ozone, it was found that there is a significant difference between the long-time and short-time series. In addition, the pathway analysis shows that the population size, distribution density, and forested area in southwestern Europe may be more sensitive to the production of tropospheric ozone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the European Union, increasing attention is already being paid not only to the development of renewable energy sources, but also to the establishment of solutions to achieve local energy self-sufficiency while increasing the role of citizens in managing the energy they generate. This approach is expected both to have a positive impact on the environment and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and to enhance energy security—both in economic and civic terms by, i.a., combating energy poverty. The development of local energy communities promoted in the EU is supported i.a. by energy cooperatives. These contribute to the efficient harnessing of renewable energy potential in rural and urban-rural areas, and have been developing in Poland for several years now. In their previous studies, the authors of this research paper attempted to verify the generation (number, type and capacity of installed sources) and consumption (energy demand) configurations in which an energy cooperative would be a viable solution for prosumers who might establish it. However, over the past few years, the conditions for prosumers and the method of their accounting with the electricity seller have changed radically in Poland (shift from net metering to net billing). This situation has opened up space for further research and encouraged the authors to revisit the problem of analyzing the viability of establishing energy cooperatives in relation to the rules of operation of individual prosumers. This research was carried out for three scenarios, and the horizon of the analyses conducted and described extends to 2045. The comparative analysis included energy consumers without their own generation sources, prosumers with a photovoltaic generation installation covered by the net billing model, as well as a scenario involving prosumers' cooperation within an energy cooperative, which by law is settled in the net metering model. Conclusions from the research and simulations made it possible to confirm the claim that, despite changes in the rules of prosumer billing, developing energy independence in the energy community formula results in a significant reduction in the cost of purchasing electricity (even several times lower purchase costs in the timeframe analyzed) and can lead to a reduction in the payback time of investments in generation sources even by a factor of two. The results presented in this research paper open up space for further research. The outcomes allow us to assume that energy cooperatives—in the organizational and institutional model in Poland—are a good tool for reducing the phenomenon of energy poverty on a local scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivation: The organisation's approach to building human capital is an essential factor in the success of market entities, and it determines a competitive advantage in the market. Due to the challenges and various market changes that banks face, building an effectively motivated multigenerational employee team and understanding employee intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is very important. Aim: The paper aims to contribute to the literature and fill the research gap on the financial motivators available in banking and non-banking entities. The paper examines the role and importance of financial incentives, regularly used in the banking sector, in conjunction with a comprehensive analysis of their significance for representatives of different generations (X, Y, Z), gender, and career level in the sample of various institutions in the banking sector in Poland. Results: The paper outlines the opportunity to revise incentive systems in banking operations. The analysis was made twofold: firstly, within extensive desk research, and secondly, based on the empirical survey in the form of an individual research questionnaire carried out among 418 employees of various banks and companies from their capital groups just before the pandemic in 2020. The results were examined using statistical analysis, including non-parametric tests. We identified multiple respondents' attitudes to motivational financial factors and classified their importance concerning generation, age, and organisational position. The study's results indicate that generational and gender differences affect the perception of bank financial incentive tools. Some financial motivational factors regularly used in banks do not equally motivate employees, which leads to the conclusion that banking institutions should inevitably include generational and gender factors in their motivational approach to employees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a discourse in the international literature regarding the impact of large sporting events on the place where they are held. In the last few years, particular emphasis has been laid on intangible effects, including social impacts that may occur not only in the case of mega sporting events but also in smaller sporting events. Therefore, the main aim of this paper is to estimate the monetary value of intangible social benefits of differently sized sporting events held in two sporting arenas in Gdańsk, Poland, using the contingent valuation method.Introduction. Material and methods. The research concerns four sporting events of various sizes organised in Gdańsk in 2012-2023. In each case, a hypothetical event scenario was used to determine the willingness to pay among the surveyed inhabitants of Gdańsk. A tobit model was used to determine the statistical relationship between the proposed monetary offers and social impacts. It was found that sporting events, regardless of their size, determine the occurrence of social impacts among host city residents. Even though aggregated values are lower in the case of smaller events, when added together, they constitute a higher percentage of actual public expenditure incurred on the construction of sports facilities.Results. By valuing intangible effects, it is possible, at least partially, to justify the spending of public funds for the organisation of sporting events. At the same time, smaller sporting events have more significant potential for host city residents than mega sporting events.Conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the idea of the functioning of an independent fiscal institution (IFI) in Poland according to the EU's requirements. The first section provides an overall description of the institution. Section 2 provides theoretical insights into possible institutional models of IFIs which are established in the EU: the purpose is to discern what lessons can be learnt from IFI models in other EU countries. Section 3 discusses the legal basis of and standards in this area of public-sector control; section 4 addresses how that adoption would look in Poland. The objective of the article is to determine what the challenges in the Polish state fiscal policy are. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper explores the enduring repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic on global supply chains by investigating the experiences and adaptations of organizations in Poland, Georgia, and Turkey. It seeks to provide valuable insights into the long-term implications of the pandemic on supply chain management, with a focus on strategies and challenges faced by businesses in different regions. Design/Methodology/Approach: We conducted an extensive study utilizing an online questionnaire to gather primary data from a diverse sample of organizations in Poland, Georgia, and Turkey. This research approach is quantitative and comprehensively assess the pandemic's impact on supply chains. We analysed responses from a range of industries, enabling a holistic understanding of the topic. In addition to descriptive analysis, we conducted a comparative examination of the three countries using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) to assess any significant differences among them. Furthermore, we employed Cramér's V, a robust statistical measure, to investigate associations between categorical variables within the dataset Findings: The research reveals that the outcomes in three distinct countries are surprisingly similar, contrary to initial expectations. The majority of the proposed COVID-19 factors exhibit no statistically significant distinctions among Poland, Georgia, and Turkey. Consequently, we can infer that the COVID-19 pandemic exerted a considerable and widespread impact on the entities under consideration. Research Limitations: Despite our efforts to gather a representative sample, the study may not encompass all industries and organizations equally. Additionally, the research is subject to the limitations of self-reported data and potential bias in responses. The focus on specific regions may not capture the entirety of global supply chain dynamics. Practical Implications: This research provides practical insights for organizations navigating supply chain challenges in a post-pandemic world. It offers guidance on building resilient and adaptable supply chains and managing risks effectively. Businesses can use these insights to make informed decisions and enhance their supply chain strategies. Originality/Value: Drawing from our own research conducted in three countries after the official conclusion of the pandemic, this study adds a distinctive contribution to the current body of literature. It takes a long-term perspective on the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic on supply chains, specifically emphasizing diverse regions. The employed methodology and regional comparisons offer a nuanced insight into the dynamic evolution of the supply chain landscape, underscoring the importance of adaptability and resilience. In contrast to various studies conducted at the onset and during the pandemic, this paper uniquely seeks to discern the enduring effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this article is to diagnose the attitudes of Polish managers towards the implementation and use of ICT technologies. Design/methodology/approach: The paper is based on a review of the literature in the field on the application of ICT in the work of managers, research reports on the digitization of enterprises and an own research. The survey was conducted in 2001 among 163 companies located in Poland (16 provinces). The survey used a diagnostic survey method, CAWI technique and an author's survey questionnaire. The research results presented in the article are part of a research subject on digital leadership. Findings: The analysis of the literature and the results of surveys indicate that managers have a low level of involvement in the process of digitization of enterprises. Despite their knowledge of the need to implement modern technologies, they do not take real steps in this direction. The results of the survey show that managers appreciate the facilitation of ICT, and what might seem to be an obstacle, such as the unlimited availability of the manager, is not a problem. Among the obstacles to the effective use of electronic means of communication, managers see first of all the low competence of employees and supervisors. Research limitations/implications: Regarding the limitations of the digitization of organizations, it would be useful to know the perspective of employees. It should be especially concerned with the evaluation of digital competence of managers. The research results presented in the article are the result of self-assessment of managers, which may explain to some extent the high evaluation of their own digital competence in relation to other employees. Originality/value: The paper has cognitive value. The results of the study can serve as a reference for further research aimed at identifying the degree of digitization of enterprises and the role of managers in it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: On the one hand, companies become consumers of a smart city, but on the other, they are also co-creators and/or initiators of new goals. The implementation of the smart city concept requires specific knowledge, especially from businesses, who are active participants in the process. The aim of the paper is to gain new knowledge about the relationship between firms’ level of knowledge on the smart city concept and the size of the company. Design/methodology/approach: The survey was carried out in 2021 using the CATI, CAWI interview method on a random sample of 217 companies in the West Pomeranian region in the Republic of Poland. The Chi-square test for independence and the Kruskal-Wallis test were conducted. Findings: A Kruskal-Wallis H test revealed no statistically significant difference in the level of smart city knowledge across the five analyzed groups based on company size. The study results indicate no significant association between company size and the four selected statements regarding smart city concept. The presented data could be the basis for the preparation of an appropriate strategy for sustainable operation, taking into account the important factor, which is people, including entrepreneurs. Research limitations/implications: The authors suggest conducting the same analysis with a larger sample size to generalize the phenomena. The authors believe that it is worth examining the level of knowledge not only of companies from the West Pomeranian voivodeship, but also from all over Poland, which may precisely illustrate the level of understanding of the smart city concept. Practical implications: Research results are important not only for regional policymakers but also for researchers interested in the field of strategic smart city development. Due to changes taking place in the perception of the city’s role, the concept of a smart and sustainable city is becoming increasingly important not only for city authorities but also for businesses. Social implications: The implementation of the smart city concept requires conscious and thoughtful steps, but also created in cooperation with all participants, especially residents and businesses, who are active participants in the process. Originality/value: Addressing a research gap in association between company size and the knowledge about the smart city concept, this study sought to provide valuable insights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to extend discussion on teachers' leadership within International Baccalaureate schools in Poland. Background for the discussions on leadership in Polish context of education is the term Homo Sovieticus [in English: Soviet Man], a notion associated with sarcastic and critical reference to an average conformist person living in the Soviet Union or in other countries of the Eastern Bloc in Europe, a spineless person who lacks any 'bottom up' initiative. In the paper, it is claimed that teachers' limited leadership in a centrally steered system of teacher training in Poland, demonstrates features of leadership developed according to the Homo Sovieticus model of the citizen. Strong emphasis onto leadership within international culture do not let Homo Sovieticus features and behaviors to develop. In this understanding, international schools with strong emphasis on leadership in Polish post-soviet educational landscape creates path of evolution from stereotypical perception of teachers as passive 'Homo Sovieticus' to leader within school curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper critically assesses Business Process Management (BPM) education in Poland and provides evidence-based recommendations for improvement. Through a survey of 44 BPM educators, the study evaluates BPM lifecycle coverage, IT tool utilization, and incorporation of the Six Core Elements of BPM. The findings reveal a focus on process modeling and analysis, identifying gaps in the way the entire BPM lifecycle is addressed. Despite the utilization of various IT tools, there is a notable absence of coverage for emerging topics such as process mining, AI, and Robotic Process Automation. Only 12% of courses cover all Six Core Elements of BPM, and there is a critical gap in student education, which is the underrepresentation of the People and Culture elements. The paper concludes with a manifesto for greater alignment between academic education and industry needs through comprehensive BPM curricula, dedicated software tools, and more robust coverage of the strategic and governance aspects of BPM. This will bridge the gap between academic education and real-world BPM applications, so that graduates can be better prepared for the challenges of the modern business landscape, which can enhance the quality and effectiveness of BPM education, thereby aligning it with the evolving demands of the business environment and contributing to the growth and competitiveness of organizations in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this article is to analyse and evaluate crowdfunding campaigns running up to the end of 2022 and to draw conclusions for the following years. Design/methodology/approach: The research methods used in the article are literature analysis, inference and desk research analysis. The main research method to achieve the objective is the descriptive method supported by a critical analysis of the literature. Desk research (known as the cabinet method, desk data analysis) is a research method that involves compiling, analysing and processing information and data from existing sources. It can be further emphasised by the fact that in this method there is no influence of the researcher on the subject of the study. The study covered equity crowdfunding platforms operating in Poland (Polish and foreign). Findings: On the basis of the analyses made, it can be concluded that the highest interest in share CF took place in 2021. In the following year, the situation began to change, due to the socio-economic situation and legal changes to its operation. Research limitations/implications: It should be taken into account that the legal changes were only introduced at the end of 2023. This means that the data presented in the article does not yet reflect the changes introduced. Furthermore, it should be taken into account that the reaction of both crowdfunding platforms and originators and investors in Poland may differ from other EU countries. Practical implications: The paper has practical implications for decision made by the crowdfunding platforms and companies interested in crowdfunding. It shows the main limitations for the crowdfunding market after the law changes. Originality/value: The article presents recent equity crowdfunding transactions in Poland. Important changes in EU and Polish law that significantly affect the development of equity crowdfunding are presented. Unfortunately, it may turn out that the changes, although introduced to protect investors and order the market, may cause a significant limitation of these transactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy sources (RESs) offer key transformative potential from a societal point of view due to their modularity and ability to generate energy at the local level, allowing for the development of grassroots democratic and participatory initiatives. The paper aims to share insights into the processes of creating RES cooperatives in Poland. One of the first cooperatives to be established in the Upper Silesian region in Poland was the energy cooperative (EC) "Our Energy". This study presents an in-depth empirical analysis of a community-based renewable energy cooperative. The study employed a case study methodology, including a SWOT analysis framework, to describe the research subject and identify its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Key findings indicate that members benefit from stable energy prices and full recovery of the energy produced, and the cooperative is at the forefront of energy-sharing practices that minimize costs through direct transactions with the local municipality. The strategic goals of the EC focus on expanding membership, increasing the number of photovoltaic installations, implementing energy balancing, combating energy poverty, and reducing emissions. Challenges such as financial constraints and a lack of real-time monitoring of energy distribution are acknowledged, and carbon footprint reduction innovations and stakeholder engagement are highlighted as forward-looking approaches. The study highlights the role of cooperatives as a model for community-led sustainable energy initiatives. However, the study acknowledges the limitations of its small sample size, suggesting the need for broader research to understand the impact of collaborative energy on decarbonization. Future research directions are proposed, focusing on the long-term sustainability and socioeconomic impacts of energy cooperatives. This study contributes to the scholarly discourse on renewable energy cooperatives by offering insight into their potential to bridge the gap between energy producers and consumers and support sustainable community development. The main novelty of this paper lies in its detailed examination of a specific renewable energy cooperative, incorporating SWOT analysis, stakeholder perspectives, quantitative assessments, and a forward-thinking approach. This multifaceted analysis contributes to the existing literature on renewable energy initiatives, providing a valuable reference for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is aimed to investigate the exchange index of the Silesian political elite in cities with county rights from the 2002 election through five elections until 2018. The author’s deliberations on the political elite exchange are based on the political elite circulation theory presented by Vilfredo Pareto. The key research question to be answered in this paper is: What is the exchange index of the local political elite’s representatives in cities with county rights in the Silesian province (PL “województwo” [voivodeship] – a local government administration unit in Poland). A regression analysis was carried out to test the influence of the year of the term of office and city on the political elite’s exchange level. The list of councillors was transformed into a database using a Python algorithm. Further data operations (diagram plotting, model calculation) were performed in the R 4.0.5 statistical environment (R Core Team, 2020). The analyses proved that the observed values of the political elite exchange index were close to the mean or distributed homogenously around it. Chorzów was the only exception for which the political elite exchange index was significantly lower than the mean for each year. The mean index of “political elite exchange” was higher in 2002 than in other years, while the expected means of 2006, 2010, and 2014 differ insignificantly. The analyses revealed a relatively stable composition of the elites. The summary contains conclusions and recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The paper aims to outline the issues related to financial management in property development enterprises during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The discussions presented herein are held from the perspective of risk categories in the construction business. Risk refers to the financial condition of developers as participants of investment and construction processes in Poland. Design/methodology/approach: In its basic part the paper deals with the operations of property development enterprises in the period from December 2019 to June 2021. The empirical research was based on case studies. In their deliberations the authors drew on their own expertise and the experience they have gained throughout long-term studies into risk management in the construction industry. Deduction and synthesis provided the foundations for the conclusions drawn by the authors with reference to property development companies operating on the Polish market at large. The conclusions presented here were also derived from the knowledge currently available in the scholarly literature in this field. In addition, comparative analysis has been employed in the publication. Findings: The paper constitutes an empirical verification of the theoretical content presented in the scientific literature. Research limitations/implications: The paper presents only the selected aspects of highly specialised knowledge which is finance and risk management in property development enterprises. Practical implications: The paper presents practical knowledge (utilitarian dimension of knowledge) verified empirically through scientific discussions. Originality/value: The discussions presented in the paper may be seen as casting some more light onto finance and construction risk management in developers’ businesses during the COVID-19 pandemic. The outbreak of the pandemic is referred to in the scholarly literature as a so-called black swan [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper aims to examine the development of welfare conditionality and especially benefit sanctions in Central and Eastern Europe (the CEE) and to develop a methodology by implementing Institutional Grammar (IG) for studying rules on benefit sanctions relying only on legal text. Design/methodology/approach: IG was used as a tool for analyzing legal regulations on benefit sanctions. It was incorporated into a social rights framework that provided a theoretical background for the study. Findings: The paper shows the dynamic development of rules on benefit sanctions in Poland in social assistance and unemployment services. Both the harshness and strictness of these rules have increased. Simultaneously, the rules of benefit sanctions in social assistance remain more liberal than those associated with unemployment services. Originality/value: The study presents the first comprehensive and concise overview of benefit sanctions development in the CEE and the first long-term comparison of these types of sanctions in two safety net systems operating in one country. The study also used IG for the first time in social policy research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Segmentation helps an organization or institution better understand the people it serves and adjust products or services to their needs. This article presents the results of the segmentation of Polish readers and library users. The study was based on 1,010 computer-assisted telephone interviews with a representative random sample of adult Polish residents. The two-step cluster analysis method was used for segmentation. Based on the average number of books read in the 3 months before the interviews, the frequency of reading the press, reading electronic texts, and the use of libraries, five segments were distinguished: almost absolute nonreaders, (news)paper enthusiasts, library lovers, occasional users, and short-form surfers. The distinguished segments were described in terms of 5 behavioral and 12 descriptive variables. Segmentation of library readers and users enables us to understand the population of actual and potential users better than traditional measures (i.e., statistics). The article also discusses the possibilities and advantages of the application of the two-step cluster analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Thermal upgrading is an important element in the economic transformation of Poland towards a low-emission economy. This paper presents the results of research into the current status and plans of inhabitants of rural areas in Poland with regard to thermal upgrading of residential buildings and other buildings used in the agricultural activity of the study participants. The main purpose of the article is to identify thermal modernization needs and to analyse factors influencing individual thermal modernization plans in terms of replacement or modernization of heating systems. A key element of the analyses was the issue of upgrading priorities and the dependency between declared intentions in terms of thermal upgrading work and the production and economic features of the farms studied. Results: The main research material were surveys conducted with a randomly selected sample of 480 farming households in Poland. The analyses used, amongst others, multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) to determine and assess the relationships between the variables studied. Detailed correspondence analysis shows that there are strong dependencies between plans for thermal upgrading of farm buildings and the system of agricultural production (φ2 = 0.1503), the economic size of farms (φ2 = 0.1100), and the location of farms (φ2 = 0.0947). Conclusions: The research showed that there is a need for thermal upgrading in the examined area of study, especially with regard to the replacement or modernisation of heating systems. The issue of thermal upgrading of residential and farm buildings in rural areas in Poland requires support and engagement at all levels of administration, as well as the modernisation of assistance programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper considers the appearance and meaning of city walls on ducal and municipal seals in 13th-century Poland. Despite the great popularity of the motif, actual stone or brick fortifications, both of towns and castles, were rare in Poland at the time. It is especially striking that in the area of Kuyavia, where local dukes introduced the motif onto their seals at an early stage, such architectonic structures were almost entirely absent. Several towns also employed images of stone walls on their seals before they gained the real fortifications. The motif of fortification is examined here as a symbol of civilization in a wider sense, and particularly that of the communal town. The final section the paper explores ways in which Polish society might have come to understand this symbolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The implementation of the Directive 2015/849 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 May 2015 on the prevention of the use of the financial system for the purposes of money laundering or terrorist financing resulted in the enactment by the Polish Parliament of the Act of March 1, 2018, on the prevention of money laundering and terrorist financing. One of the most important issues identified in the Act was the establishment of the Central Register of Beneficial Owners. The purpose of this paper is to critically analyze the functioning of the Register in Poland from the perspective of three years since its establishment. The text presents the most important problems faced by reporting institutions and obliged entities due to discrepancies in the interpretation of the Act's provisions – especially in terms of the definition of a beneficial owner. Design/methodology/approach: The basic research approach was a comparative content analysis method. The objects of analysis included Polish Laws, Directive of the European Parliament and the Council (EU) 2015/849 and the judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union. The theoretical legislative assumptions contained in the Acts were compared with reports, studies and communications prepared by public and private institutions. This made it possible to draw conclusions regarding the causes of problems with the functioning of the Register in Poland. Findings: The results of the research showed that the ambiguity of the definition of the beneficial owner leads to a number of problems on the part of reporting institutions, such as companies, foundations and associations. On the other hand, a large part of the data entered in the Register is questioned by obliged entities. The lack of personal data protection is also a problem. Consequently, this reduces the value of the Register as a tool that effectively mitigates the risk of money laundering. Research limitations/implications: The research focused only on the functioning of the Central Register of Beneficial Owners in Poland. The subject of the analysis addressed problems with the definition of beneficial owner, issues of data quality and openness and the process of verifying the Register's data. The technical aspects of the Register operation and the financial penalties imposed by public oversight institutions were not reviewed. Also, no comparison was made with other European Union (EU) member states that have implemented Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council (EU) 2015/849. Originality/value: This study discusses the important issue of regulatory requirements introduced under EU regulations for private companies. Familiarization of companies, NGOs and obliged entities with the conclusions of the study can positively influence the consolidation of the correct interpretative path. In addition, to the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first scientific text that identifies and systematizes the most important problems of the Register's functioning in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2020 it is estimated that 281 million people were international migrants. Migrants constitute a potentially vulnerable population in terms of facing discrimination, poor living and housing conditions, and insufficient access to healthcare services. Due to the armed conflict in Ukraine in 2022, almost 10 million people crossed the Polish border within a year of the outbreak of the conflict. The objective of this paper is to present the use of primary healthcare services by people migrating from Ukraine to Poland and identify the barriers in access to healthcare by this group of persons. This study used a qualitative research technique in the form of an expert interview using individual in-depth interviews (IDI). The study group consisted of professionally active primary healthcare providers (doctors, nurses, and facility managers) in Poland. Research was carried out in the areas regarding the availability of healthcare, the potential threats and challenges, and possible system solutions. The results showed that the most common cause for doctor's appointments among migrants are respiratory infections, including COVID-19. Many cases were related to back pain, mainly resulting from the physical work of the patients. Additionally, some barriers to access and the provision of healthcare services for patients from Ukraine were identified. The majority (75%) of respondents indicated language as a significant barrier when providing services. Based on the study results, we recommend creating a dedicated website and telephone hotline for this group of persons as well as the use of traditional media to distribute information about access to healthcare services. It is also essential to focus on assistance for older people, since they may experience more difficulties with language and navigating the healthcare system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In north-western Poland, cultural and historical structures were erected using erratic boulders of Scandinavian origin. These structures have yet to be subjected to detailed analysis with the aim of determining their origin, type of erratic boulders and rock abundance of a given petrographic type. This topic has not been addressed by art historians in previous studies of similar structures. The objective of this paper is to present five illustrative examples of stone structures that are closely related to cultural heritage in north-western Poland. A comprehensive inventory of the stone material is presented, categorised according to petrographic types. This is accompanied by a guide to the erratics. Furthermore, this article addresses the principles of geoethics and the concept of sense of place, with the objective of fostering a sense of pride in cultural heritage among residents and viewers. The objective was to identify the current and potential future geosystem services that erratic boulders can provide at the aforementioned locations. The survey methods were non-intrusive and included a comprehensive analysis of the stone material at eye level. Furthermore, in addition to graphic and photographic archiving, the petrographic type of rock and the type of indicative erratics were identified in carefully designed test fields. The results were subjected to basic statistical calculations. The results obtained represent a new corpus of knowledge that can be employed in the sustainable development of the five regions through the utilisation of a tool such as geotourism. It is anticipated that the implementation of innovative initiatives aimed at fostering geoenvironmental awareness and providing educational benefits, such as disseminating knowledge about the petrography and history of the sites (including the evolution of stone workshops and techniques), the role of historic buildings in strengthening attachment to roots, and their promotion in the media and on the internet, will result in the attraction of a more diverse group of tourists with interests beyond the current tourist and recreational offerings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper adopts a transaction costs (TCs) approach towards analysing the transactions of local governments in the service sector. The objective of the paper is to expand the analysis of the TCs concept by going beyond the conventional service-type-driven models. This study examines the cost of monitoring (MC) service contracts in Poland as perceived by local government officials, focusing on different forms of externalisation. The research involves utilising quantitative methods to examine how five distinct governance structures influence perceptions of TCs. The study suggests that the entity type, whether a public or private agent, affects the perceptions of monitoring costs in contractual agreements. The research found that the monitoring costs associated with public sector contracts are perceived to be higher than in public-private transactions, challenging previous findings. Further research on Inter-Municipal Cooperation should focus on the final product quality monitoring area, representing the most costly aspect of multi-principal structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to define the impact of training and development (T&D) in the Visegrad countries (V4) as impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic, namely, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic. These countries have some political, cultural, social and economic similarities and share some common ground in the human resource development (HRD) sectors. Design/methodology/approach: The authors used the HRD theory and the human capital theory to analyse the context, operations and impact of T&D in the V4 countries due to the Covid-19 pandemic. The research was conducted in 400 companies, 100 from each of the four countries using the computer assisted web interviewing technique. The questionnaire was in a six-point Likert scale format and addressed 12 topics related to T&D: policy, expectations, procedures of diagnosis, preparation, implementation, monitoring, trainees, trainers, investment and expenditures, evaluation, results and controlling. Findings: The authors concluded that in the Visegrad countries, Covid-19 raised expectations on T&D. This was followed by increased levels of action in diagnosis, preparation, monitoring and implementation, following pre-existing and adjusted policies. Evaluation and control were complicated. Investment and results and the human side of the T&D (trainees and trainers) were the ones for which there were more uncertainties and perplexities. Research limitations/implications: The study has the limitation of using only a small sample in four countries. For further research, the authors suggest a larger study extended to all the European Union countries, an in-depth analysis of the current data and the kurtosis on Policy of T&D. Practical implications: The results of the research can be used to improve T&D programs after the Covid-19 pandemic. They could also provide information to external trainers to improve and adjust their services according to the opinions of the respondents of the study. The research findings can also serve institutions responsible for policy provision of HRD at a national level by providing possibilities to apply for funding either within national or regional funds like the National Training Fund in Poland or within European Union money at a national level. Originality/value: The study is original because even if the T&D in V4 countries during the Covid-19 pandemic had already been studied separately (e.g. Mikołajczyk, 2021; Vrabcová, Urbancová 2021; Vinichenko et al., 2021), no empirical, cross-national research analysing specifically the T&D in those countries has been carried out so far. The authors use an innovative methodology, addressing 12 topics and the people involved together with the stages in which a T&D policy is divided. That makes it innovative and very relevant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The opinion concerns the legal and legislative correctness of the Bill on substantial human rights and freedoms in the field of application of biology and medicine and the establishment of the Polish Council of Bioethics (Paper No. 3468). The author claims that the bill unnecessarily repeats most of the general provisions of the Oviedo Convention and, in the same time, in important matters, does not determine the rules required to implement its provisions. He argues that the bill leaves much to be desired as concerns its structure and scheme of the rules. General regulations are adjacent to very detailed ones, and provisions matching similar themes are scattered in different places of the proposed bill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In November 2015 the Israeli Ministry of Education declared that the matriculation exam in history would no longer include the Holocaust, and instead students would be required to write a research paper. Following this decision, we wished to test the level of knowledge concerning the Holocaust among undergraduate students (excluding those who study contemporary history, which includes Holocaust studies). For this purpose, 145 participants were sampled, students at four Israeli academic institutions: two universities and two colleges. The research question referred to remembering information about the Holocaust, and the study took into account students' different personal, family, and academic background (having participated in the journey to Poland or not, having relatives who had died or survived the Holocaust, being religious and secular). The knowledge survey refers to terms from four areas: people, historical events during the Holocaust era, organizations that operated in that period, and places and methods of killing. In general, the level of knowledge was found to be very low (general knowledge score: 42.6 of 100). No significant differences were found in scores by religion or participation in the journey to Poland, aside from knowledge about places and methods of killing, where we found a significant difference between those who participated in the journey to Poland and those who did not. In addition, no significant differences were found between participants whose relatives had died or had survived the Holocaust, or by either the number of years since high school graduation or gender. From the respondents' answers, it appears that high school studies play an essential role as the main perceived source of knowledge (90.4% referred to the school as a main or additional knowledge source). When asked about the new exam format, the majority (52.1%) replied that they would prefer to write a research paper to taking an exam. The low level of knowledge that we found raises practical questions: Are the schools teaching correctly? Should the study program be reviewed? Are we providing the right highlights? What is the contribution of the journey to Poland if 60% of the participants are not familiar, for example, with Mordechai Anielewicz? What can be done to improve the situation? Will the decision to exclude Holocaust topics from the high school finals in history, and to require students to write a research paper, improve the situation? What is the future of remembrance in a generation that will have no Holocaust survivors to tell their personal story? It is necessary to check the importance of the school as a primary source of knowledge, and how to improve the study methods so that the knowledge will be preserved. Perhaps the informal teaching that includes the journey to Poland plays an important role and should be used more often. Furthermore, despite students' support of the reform and the conception that writing a research paper is better than taking an exam about the Holocaust, there is a need to check what is included in this research paper and whether writing it on a specific subject connected to the Holocaust, won't cause a situation where the students are only proficient in that subject with regard to the Holocaust. In addition, the student's ability to prepare a research paper should be considered. Indeed, the students replied that they would be capable of writing such a paper, but the question is whether high school students indeed have the necessary proficiency and tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this paper is to analyze the importance of finance for climate change. Design/methodology/approach: The paper attempts to answer the question: what is the meaning of finance in the processes related to environmental protection, what is the development trend in the field of the so-called instruments of green finance and what are the purposes of the particular instruments. The following research methods were used: literature review, desk research (UNCTAD reports, GIIN, Sustainable Debt, Green Finance in Poland,) and deductive reasoning. Findings: The market for green finance instruments is growing rapidly. For both green bonds and sustainable funds and impact investments, the growth rate in the number and value of instruments has been the highest in recent years. The analysis of investment directions indicates that they are related to activities concerning environmental protection or other aspects of sustainable development. Practical implications: The importance and need for creating conditions (legislative, technical, educational) for the development of green finance instrument market was indicated. Originality/value: The paper offers cognitive value as it contributes to the body of knowledge regarding the relevance of green in addressing climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stylometry has gained great popularity in digital humanities and social sciences. Many works on stylometry have recently been reported. However, there is a research gap regarding review studies in this field from a bibliometric and evolutionary perspective. Therefore, in this paper, a bibliometric analysis of publications from the Scopus database in the stylometric research field was proposed. Then, research articles published between 1968 and 2021 were collected and analyzed using the Bibliometrix R package for bibliometric analysis via the Biblioshiny web interface. Empirical results were also presented in terms of the performance analysis and the science mapping analysis. From these results, it is concluded that there has been a strong growth in stylometry research in recent years, while the USA, Poland, and the UK are the most productive countries, and this is due to many strong research partnerships. It was also concluded that the research topics of most articles, based on author keywords, focused on two broad thematic categories: (1) the main tasks in stylometry and (2) methodological approaches (statistics and machine learning methods). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The last EU Financial Perspective for 2014-2020 as well as the approaching 20th anniversary of Poland’s accession to the European Union create an opportunity for recapitulation of Poland’s use of structural funds in both of these periods. Design/methodology/approach: The objective of the paper involves a preliminary analysis and assessment of the areas of assistance as well as the instruments supporting the improvement of personnel qualifications in a regional economy on the example of the West Pomeranian Province. The assessment concerns the implementation of the Regional Operational Programme for the West Pomeranian Province in the period of 2014-2020 (ROP WP). The paper is one of a series of papers, constituting a recapitulation of the experience that Poland and its regions have had so far in benefiting from the EU structural funds. Findings: The article presents an analysis of the contents of strategic and programme documents of national and regional scope, and in particular of the Partnership Agreement and the ROP WP for 2014-2020. The evaluation of the aid granted for the improvement of qualifications of the West Pomeranian Province personnel was based on an analysis of competition documentation as well as the results of project evaluations conducted by the Managing Authority of the ROP WP 2014-2020. Originality/value: The article contains a preliminary analysis and assessment of the main areas of support and instruments supporting the development of human resources in the regional economy on the example of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in 2014-2020. It is addressed to entities and scientists dealing with programming and management, supporting the improvement of the quality of human resources in the economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Roadside memorials are made up of objects, usually flowers, candles and crosses, placed at the roadside to mark the sites of fatal accidents. The paper introduces the potential of Lefebvre's concept of rhythmanalysis and geography of rhythms in exploring roadside memorials. The aim of the paper is to investigate rituals and rhythms at roadside memorials in Poland. Data were collected during two-year field observations of 12 roadside memorials and from 10 semi-structured interviews. Polish roadside memorials are part of widespread rituals which either generate material changes to roadside memorials, like cleaning up works, leaving candles and flowers at memorials or which do not generate such changes, like saying prayers or reminiscing about the deceased. The specifics of roadside memorialisation in Poland are expressed in prayers being said and no personal belongings being left at the sites. We found that the coexistence of individual and social rhythms at roadside memorials was deeply rooted in Catholic liturgy and commonly accepted cemetery rituals in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A list of research papers presented in 2014 at the conferences of the Institute for the History of Science, Polish Academy of Sciences (IHN PAN), Poland, is presented, on topics including the history of pharmacy, educational reforms in Poland, and the creation of a new university model in Poland.

THIS PAPER AIMS TO DEVOTE AN ANALYTIC EYE ON THE LIBERALIZATION COURSE ADOPTED BY THE POLISH GOVERNMENT AFTER THE FALL OF THE COMMUNIST REGIME IN 1989. AFTER THE PEACEFUL TRANSITION FROM A TOTALITARIAN COMMUNIST INSPIRED REGIME TO A DEMOCRATIC FORM OF GOVERNMENT, THE NEW POLISH POLITICAL ELITE HAD TO EMBARK IN REFORMS, AIMING TO GENERATE ECONOMIC PROSPERITY AND RECOVER THE BACKWARDNESS COMPARED TO THE WESTERN COUNTRIES, FROM WHICH ADOPTED THE DEVELOPMENT MODEL. THIS PAPER ARGUES THAT IF THE PROPER ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS ARE DEVELOPED BY THE STATES, THEN THE POVERTY IS REDUCED, FROM THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF INSTITUTIONAL ECONOMICS, AS PROPOSED BY DARON ACEMOGLU AND JAMES A. ROBINSON. BASICALLY, THIS PAPER ARGUES THAT THE ADOPTION OF INCLUSIVE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS GENERATED PROSPERITY AND ECONOMIC POSITIVE PERFORMANCE FOR POLAND AFTER THE FALL OF THE EXTRACTIVE COMMUNIST REGIME. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship that exists between financial depth and economic growth in Poland for the years 1995–2019. This paper utilizes integration and co-integration techniques to capture the long-term and short-term linkages between various determinants of financial deepening, economic growth and a few selected growth variables. Financial depth is measured using two distinct measures: the monetization ratio (i.e. the ratio of broad money in the economy to the gross domestic product (GDP)) and the domestic credit provided to private sector by banks. Design/methodology/approach: The paper uses a combination of Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) and Phillips–Perron unit root tests, autoregressive distributive lag (ARDL) model and Granger causality tests to estimate results. Findings: This paper finds that there is a bidirectional causal relationship between financial deepening and economic growth in the short run, but this relationship does not hold in the long run. The control variables comprising trade volume, investment, government spending and volatility in oil prices and inflation have a significant, positive relationship with economic development in the long run. Originality/value: The findings are indicative of the need for further strengthening of the financial sector in Poland, such that the relationship between financial depth and economic growth is substantiated in the long run. This paper also finds room for more stringent regulation of the financial system and transparency in information available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The worldwide COVID-19 pandemic revealed societal challenges, with passenger transport rapidly experiencing the impacts of the virus and the evolution of the concept of safety in transport. Evaluating the likelihood of viral transmission within transportation systems may be a substantial challenge, considering the complex processes that influence the incidence of random transmission events. This paper introduces a method for determining the probability of pathogen transmission in public transport, focusing on the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The study draws on scenarios from the first and second waves of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland, a period that was devastatingly marked by the lack of available vaccines. This study aims to add value to the scientific community by offering an estimation of the likelihood of SARS-CoV-2 transmission in public transport and a preliminary risk assessment for COVID-19 infection, considering the number of active, non-isolated COVID-19 cases in the Polish population. The potential of this approach was demonstrated through a comparison between two different categories of passenger transport in a city bus. Based on the presented case study and the calculated probability of pathogen transmission, it is estimated that the probability of SARS-CoV-2 infection during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland through the use of public transport was approximately 0.05%. Probability estimations based on elementary events, which can vary depending on the service category (for instance, the form of ticket purchase, availability of seating or standing places, or ticket inspection), can reveal even the smallest differences in the total likelihood of pathogen transmission. However, these minute individual variations significantly impact the total metrics calculated for daily users of public transport. For effective monitoring of potential epidemic threats and for designing suitable interventions and restrictions to lower the risk of future pandemics, it may be necessary to understand the role that transportation systems, particularly public transport systems, play in the spread of pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The paper aims to identify how and where elements of digital transformation of activities implemented in enterprises can increase the resilience of the production system to pandemic threats. Design/methodology/approach: The paper presents the selected results of a survey conducted using the mixed-mode CATI and CAWI on a representative group of 600 manufacturing enterprises in Poland. An analysis of measures used in the case of COVID-19 infections in the company to support business continuity and enhance resilience was carried out. A quantitative evaluation of the collected data, oriented to identify the level of application of emergency response measures, was conducted, including the support of statistical tools (Statistica software). Findings: The study identified dozens of different measures implemented in manufacturing enterprises. Among the measures studied, there were those related to automation and digitalization of activities in the organization of production processes. The data analysis showed that there were significant correlations between the type of measures used, as well as the characteristics of the enterprises, and the production processes implemented in them. Research limitations/implications: Future studies should also include companies with a high degree of automation and digitization of production. In addition to descriptive analysis, a quantitative-statistical approach should be used. Practical implications: On the practical side, it was pointed out how and where elements of digital transformation of activities implemented in enterprises can increase the resilience of the production system to pandemic threats. Digitization and automation measures should be used by managers to support the implementation of production processes also in the context of improving the efficiency of enterprises. Social implications: Enterprises can use the study results to improve business continuity policies and preparing for threats similar to the COVID-19 pandemic. Originality/value: The novelty of the survey is the comprehensive assessment of the use of solutions from the ICT area in manufacturing enterprises, analyzed in different cross sections (size, industry, occurrence of the COVID-19 case). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper sheds light on the feelings of exclusion and insecurity among female members of Catholic groups in contemporary Poland. It is based on data gathered in the years 2019–2020 within the research project Resistance and Subordination. Religious Agency of Roman Catholic Women in Poland, which involved 48 in-depth interviews with university-educated Catholic women living in large Polish cities and engaged in various religious groups. The conducted analysis indicates that the interviewees resorted to defensive actions, representing a cultural backlash. Taking into consideration the numerical and institutional dominance of Roman Catholicism in Poland, the overarching question of the paper is: why do the interviewed women feel excluded and at what or at whom is their resentment directed? The analysis draws upon a wider discussion on the ongoing ideological polarisation of contemporary societies, showing the case of a country that is religiously homogenous. The interviewed women recognise some external threats, such as liberal culture and feminism, but also internal ones, namely ritualised, habitual, 'mainstream' Catholicism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The development and competitiveness of regions constitutes one of the most crucial areas of the intervention of the European Union’s structural funds. Aid to SME’s and increasing their competitiveness constitute one of the main priorities of supporting the development of individual regions. The aim of the article is to summarize and evaluate Polish experiences in the use of EU funds for the needs of increasing the competitiveness of the SME sector. Design/methodology/approach: The paper features an analysis of literature concerning the structural funds with a particular focus on the European Regional Development Fund. Additionally, the author analysed the provisions of basic strategic documents, which contain the assumptions for the implementation of the cohesion policy in Polish regions in subsequent EU budget periods over the course of 2004-2020. Findings: Poland as well as its regions have been the beneficiaries of the EU cohesion policy for nearly twenty years, preparing strategic documents and managing aid received from the structural funds during three subsequent periods: 2004-2006, 2007-2013 and 2014-2020. For almost two decades a system of support and the implementation of its major priorities was created at a national and regional level, stipulated in operational programmes and implemented by institutions equipped with suitable competences. Originality/value: The paper is an attempt at summarising Polish experiences in using the ERDF’s aid for the purpose of raising the competitiveness of the entities in the SME sector, which was to constitute one of the main priorities of improving the competitiveness and growth of Polish regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of the paper is to describe the means of electronic communication used by companies for internal communication, to rank them according to the frequency of use by organizations, and to identify the attributes of the organization affecting the frequency of use of these means. Design/methodology/approach: The article is based on a review of the literature in the field of organizational communication and own research. The research was conducted by means of a diagnostic survey among 225 companies located in Poland (16 provinces) using the CAWI technique and an author's survey questionnaire. Findings: The survey results illustrate the high and continuing popularity of e-mail communication and the untapped potential of tools designed for team and project work. No correlation was noted between the use of means of electronic communication with the scope of the company, the form of ownership of the company, the ownership capital and the respondent (manager, IT manager, owner, board member). The correlation related to the use of e-communication means and the size of the company appears only in the case of e-mail and electronic workflow systems. A similar relationship, but involving more electronic communication means, appears for the degree of computerization of the company. Research limitations/implications: A certain difficulty, already at the design stage of the survey, was the preparation of a list of means of electronic communication. There is not one in the literature that is exhaustive, disjointed and accepted by all. This fact points to the need for research and findings in this area. The risks accompanying the study are related to the development of technology and the obsolescence of specific communication tools. Originality/value: The paper is primarily of cognitive value. The findings allow those responsible for communication in an organization to confront the means of electronic communication used in their organization with those used by others. It also illustrates the untapped potential of electronic tools for team or project work. The results of the study can serve as a reference point for further comparative research. The paper draws attention to the area of intra-organizational communication, which is still unstable and under development in the Polish reality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the paper is to present a methodology for measuring contemporary protectionism - based on data from Poland. In light of the difficulties in assessing all trade barriers, an approximation was proposed: the regional barometer of protectionism (RBP). Recognizing that 21st century protectionism is observable only to a certain extent, the research is based on data that reflect the level of this phenomenon - i.e., media releases as well as Global Trade Alert data. In constructing this barometer, the TOPSIS method (a Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution) was used. The RBP constructed (for 2009-2020) is the first regional barometer of protectionism. The results of the research reveal the level and dynamics of protectionism in the case of Poland. This RBP improves the methodology of foreign trade analysis by providing a thorough basis for further research into both the effects and causes of protectionism; this paper presents initial explanations for the latter. Furthermore, after the barometer of protectionism is constructed, trade barriers may eventually be included in further research for models designed to explain Polish trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dire need for economic wellbeing may lure states into economic integration amidst a somewhat passive agreement. This paper aims to isolate the crossroad between the EU economic integration and sovereign law. The prior conceptual basis is on economic utility and passive agreement. The approach is conceptual and applies discourse analysis using the recent unprecedented Poland's court ruling, which challenges the EU's supremacy. The paper uncovers a central point of conflict, which is the desire to retain national legal sovereignty and the quest for higher economic utility. Therefore, the paper highlights an intractable crossroad between target economic wellbeing and the supremacy of national sovereign law. This paper contributes the first utility analysis following the recent Poland's court objection of EU's supremacy. It is therefore a good reading for university business schools. The economic and ideological contexts of the paper provide practical insight for economic policy makers on economic integration issues. Further research may check if an achievement higher economic utility may reduce the pursuit of national sovereignty amongst integrated member states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research problem is minority participation in local development, illustrated by the case of the Lithuanian minority's activities in Poland. The aim of the paper is to analyse actions conducted by the Lithuanian minority in Poland (Puosk) and to point out some factors supporting cross-border cultural cooperation engaging the national minority, based on best practices from the Lithuanian-Polish borderland. It is a good illustration of a process leading to the improvement of relations between neighbouring countries, thanks to cross-border cooperation based on the minority's activities. The authors analyse a case study regarding Polish commune development strongly influenced by Lithuanian culture and the Lithuanian minority's activities. It is analysed in the paper together with qualitative research (interviews) that allowed the research problem to be solved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chinese initiatives of a geopolitical nature are being more and more frequently analyzed in the literature. At the same time, it is pointed out that at least since 2012 China has been pursuing an assertive and active foreign policy. Due to the importance of the Belt and Road Initiative project and also the 16 + 1 cooperation in the Central and Eastern Europe region, it is worth analyzing what the perception of China in this region is on the example of Poland. The study attempts to answer the question of how the increase in China's importance and its international engagement are perceived in Poland. The analysis of Polish papers published in 2003–2017 shows, and this is an argument, that Polish researchers more frequently present China in the categories of a threat and apply research terminology and tools within the realistic theory of international relations and this image is being reinforced, especially after 2013. The analytical framework of "China as a threat" and "China as an opportunity" occurring frequently in research is placed in this paper in theories of international relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]