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Purpose: The purpose of the study was to benchmark meta-analytical conceptualizations of business-to-business (B2B) seller skills against empirical evidence in services firms. Design/methodology/approach: The study is based on a deductive approach and questionnaire survey focusing on a range of services firms from different industries and corporate sizes. A total of 389 questionnaires out of 732 were returned, generating a response rate of 53.1%. Findings: The study aims to provide empirical evidence and structures relating to B2B sellers' capabilities in a seven-dimensional conceptualization, all of which can be used in services firms to improve their seller efficiency. Each seller skill dimension performs a different function in the sales services process. Research limitations/implications: The authors conclude that the verified meta-analytical conceptualizations of B2B seller skills seem valid and reliable in services firms. Nevertheless, further research needs to be carried out, based on other company characteristics as well as industries. Practical implications: It reduces the risk perceived by customers in B2B services settings through cultivating the sellers' capabilities, based on the seven-dimensional evidence of seller skills to enhance sales performance. Originality/value: The study contributes to existing theory and previous studies by offering a foundation on which to structure sales performance indicators in services firms. Specifically, it contributes to structuring B2B seller skills across a selection of principal dimensions in B2B services settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to investigate focal firms' business sustainability relationships in connection with their stakeholders in supply chain networks. A questionnaire survey was sent to a sample consisting of large Swedish firms, with 107 usable questionnaires returned. The results reveal which stakeholders are of interest for firms in sustainability efforts. The results are compared with earlier findings from Norway and Spain in a triangular approach. The former is a similar country, while the latter is different to Sweden in several ways. In addition, the study uncovers which stakeholders in the supply chain network should be considered. The study also demonstrates how firms can implement business sustainability in their supply chain networks and shows the extent to which different stakeholders are considered in sustainability efforts. The study contributes to sustainability research and stakeholder theory in supply chain networks. Opposite to earlier findings, this study showed only minor influences from national culture and institutions on firms' sustainable business practices in supply chain networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to test the direct effect of B2B sellers' skills on relative and absolute sales performance. Design/methodology/approach: Based on a questionnaire survey and deductive approach. A total of 236 useable questionnaires out of 315 are returned, generating a response rate of 74.9%. Findings: Only one out of twelve hypothesized relationships in the research model of the direct effect of B2B sellers' skills on relative and absolute sales performance turned out to be significant. Research limitations/implications: Indicate that the researchers' current understanding of the effect of sales performance indicators on sales performance, based on B2B sellers' skills, is narrow and simplistic. Practical implications: Results indicate that there are skills other than the tested ones (i.e. interpersonal, adaptiveness and selling-related knowledge), that can have direct effects on B2B sellers' relative and absolute sales performance. Originality/value: Sheds light on the ambiguous direct effect of B2B sellers' skills on sales performance and the almost non-existent direct effect on B2B sellers' relative and absolute sales performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Whether internal or external, motivational factors serve as stimulants influencing individual ability to execute sales tasks. A meta-analysis was conducted highlighting three broad categories of individual motivations that are imperative within the context of sales performance, namely cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement. However, marketing and sales management scholars argue that there is a need for further research exploring the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors on overall sales performance in multiple business settings. Aim: The aim of the study is to test a six-dimensional framework of business-to-business (B2B) sellers' motivations in sales performance. Setting: The application of a six-dimensional framework on sales performance within a Norwegian context. Different companies from multiple industries operating in the product-orientated sector of Norway were selected to measure the relevance of the six-dimensional framework to sales performance in these companies. Method: In total, 236 usable questionnaires representing multiple industries of different sizes across Norway were used. Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires. Results: The findings indicate that the dimensions of B2B sellers' motivations are relevant in a B2B sales setting. Therefore, sales businesses operating in a B2B environment need to become increasingly aware that motivations drive sellers to achieve their goals. Conclusion: The study offers an increased understanding on how to structure B2B sellers' motivations in a six-dimensional framework, including cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement. Contribution: The study develops an improved understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that influence the sales performance of B2B sellers. Furthermore, it contributes to an increased understanding of how to structure B2B sellers' motivations in a six-dimensional framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main purpose of the study is to assess proposed relationships in a model across different settings, where satisfaction is a mediator between quality constructs in a seller-customer relational setting in B2B markets. The positioning of satisfaction as a mediator is between trust and commitment as antecedents of satisfaction, and cooperation, continuity, and coordination as postcedents of satisfaction in seller-customer relationships. The study was quantitative in nature, supported by an exploratory research approach. Data was collected based on a population of companies across Norwegian industries, as reflected in the Norwegian database Sales Navigator on LinkedIn. To enable research on seller-customer business relationships, key informants who adhered to specific criteria (e.g., that they were sales or marketing managers/directors or key account managers) were selected to participate in the study. A total of 841 potential key informants were identified and contacted telephonically to verify whether they qualified to participate in the survey and, if not, to identify an appropriate person who fit the criteria at the same firm. A total of 523 informants adhered to the stipulated criteria to participate in the study, with a total of 213 informants who completed the questionnaire satisfactorily. This resulted in their responses to be used for data analysis purposes, representing a valid response rate of 40.7%. Respondents were requested to name one key business customer with whom they engaged in the last year, and to be mindful of this respondent when answering the questionnaire. To secure privacy, respondents did not have to identify the customer. Furthermore, the respondents were asked to answer the questions to the best of their ability to ensure quality responses to each item in the questionnaire. Design/methodology/approach The questionnaire began with a competency check to ensure respondents were suitable to participate in the study. The respondents were asked, "Please consider how knowledgeable and experienced you are concerning your business and your business dealings with this customer." They then had to answer the following two statements: a) "I have a lot of knowledge about this customer"; and b) "I have a lot of experiences with this customer," which were measured using a five-point Likert-type scale, ranging between (1) strongly agree and (5) strongly disagree. Almost all respondents (99.5%) indicated that they had extensive knowledge about the customer, while 94.5% indicated that they had wide-ranging experiences with the customer. The application of a five-point Likert-type scale was secured to determine the degree to which respondents agreed or disagreed with the items included in the questionnaire relating to trust, commitment, satisfaction, coordination, continuity and cooperation in seller–customer relationships. The SPSS/Amos 24.0 software was used to conduct the multivariate analysis. Firstly, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted, followed by structural equation modeling. Confirmatory factor analysis was applied to assess the measurement properties of each construct, while structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the proposed hypotheses in the precursor and outcome research model. The tested research model adheres to the cutoff points for satisfactory convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity, as well as to the minimum requirements for construct reliability. Furthermore, it was determined that trust and commitment have a positive and significant influence on satisfaction in a seller-customer context, while satisfaction positively and significantly influences coordination, continuation, and cooperation in seller-customer relationships in a B2B setting. The tested model validates the hypothesized relationships between trust, commitment, satisfaction, coordination, continuity, and cooperation from a seller's perspective in a B2B setting. Moreover, the model confirms the sequential logic of quality constructs in seller-customer business relationships. Furthermore, the findings reported on the seller-customer research model raise the question for further research on the seller's perspective in relation to the sequential logic of quality constructs in business relationships. Extensive research has been undertaken based on the buyer's perspective, while the seller's perspective requires additional research. The findings indicate consistency between the measurement and structural properties based on sellers' and buyers' perspectives in business relationships. Evidently, further research is required to verify the validity and reliability beyond the studied Norwegian seller-customer business relationships. A crucial research implication is that existing items to measure trust, commitment, satisfaction, cooperation, coordination, and continuity in buyer-supplier relationships (i.e., a buyer's perspective) appear to be valid and reliable – after the minimal replacement of the word "supplier" with the word "customer" – to measure the same construct in seller-customer business relationships (i.e., a seller's perspective). This offers further opportunities to test other constructs and related items used that are based on a buyer's perspective to verify their validity and reliability in seller perspective contexts. Finally, the study provides opportunities to assess the mutuality of satisfaction, trust, commitment, cooperation, coordination, and continuity in buyer-supplier and seller-customer business relationships. The findings assist sellers in a B2B setting to better understand the quality factors that are vital for business-to-business customers when building long-term relationships with industrial sellers. In addition, these quality factors are perceived as important by sellers across industries in Norway. Therefore, the study established that it is important to make the seller aware of the positive consequences of trust (e.g., through information and education). Secondly, when the seller understands the positive consequences of trust, the seller can use them as an argument in discussions with a customer focusing on the benefits (e.g., cooperation, coordination, and continuity) of keeping a satisfied and committed business relationship, and so trust is maintained between the seller and the buyer. It was furthermore established that mutual trust creates a relationship rewarding both parties (i.e., a win-win situation). Conclusively, it is argued that trust is the basis of positive consequences (e.g., commitment and satisfaction) that stimulates the seller's self-confidence, and most likely leads to improved sales performance through cooperation, commitment, and continuity of the business relationship. The majority of studies measuring quality constructs in B2B relationships are positioned from the buyer's perspective in a B2B setting. This study established a foundation to assess the relationship quality of a firm's inbound and outbound business relationships from a seller's perspective in a B2B context. Furthermore, the study provides an understanding of the seller's perspective toward the quality constructs required for long-term relationship building. Since the majority of B2B studies are conducted from a buyer's perspective, a seller's perspective is required increasingly to better manage the long-term relationship building process in B2B markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to test the relationship between objective and subjective sales performance and salespeople's economic and non-economic satisfaction in a sequential logic model. Design/methodology/approach: Based on a questionnaire survey using a deductive approach. A total of 315 companies were ultimately selected for participation in the study, to represent a range of companies from different industries and company sizes in the product-oriented business sector of Norway. A total of 236 questionnaires were returned, generating a response rate of 74.9%. Findings: The sequential logic of objective and subjective sales performance, in connection with salespeople's economic and non-economic satisfaction, reveals an underlying structure that can link existing theory and previous studies on sales performance and salesperson satisfaction in business-to-business (B2B) settings. Research limitations/implications: The results reported applying only to a B2B setting, to test whether the sequential logic model and mediating effects still hold in such setting. This study is also limited to product-oriented companies in Norway, which offers the opportunity for a future study to verify whether the refined research model also applies to service-oriented companies. Practical implications: The results indicate that the constructs of objective and subjective sales performance and salespeoplés economic and non-economic satisfaction are intertwined in a B2B setting. Specifically, these constructs are related to one another sequentially. Originality/value: Contributes to structuring in a B2B setting, the relationships between objective and subjective sales performance on the one hand and salespeoplés economic and non-economic satisfaction on the other. It also highlights two mediating effects, namely, subjective sales performance mediates the relationship effect between objective sales performance and salespeoplés economic satisfaction and salespeople economic's satisfaction mediates the relationship effect between subjective sales performance and salespeople's non-economic satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on a framework of sales performance drivers, considering four areas of seller skills, and seven dimensions that the literature generally recognizes as affecting sales performance in B2B settings. The four areas and seven dimension of seller skill level are as follows: (i) interpersonal abilities, including communication as well as presentation skills; (ii) degree of adaptiveness, considering seller ability to modify both the sales approach and the sales behavior; (iii) selling-related knowledge, covering product and market-knowledge skills; and (iv) sellers' use of technology. As a whole, assuming a pivotal role played by seller skills, the research objective is to empirically verify a conceptual framework based on B2B seller skills in the context of sales performance. This study responds to a recent call to use meta-analyses to increase research-based knowledge in the sales domain. This study offers an empirical testing of a research framework for the identification and understanding of those skills that sellers need to embrace handling and increasing value in business relationships with customers in B2B settings of tangible products. The methodology relies on a questionnaire survey using a deductive approach. A total of 315 companies were ultimately selected to take part in the study, so as to represent a range of companies from different industries and corporate sizes within the product-oriented business sector of Norway (i.e. services-oriented companies are not included). The companies were identified from the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC 2007). A total of 236 questionnaires out of 315 were returned, generating a response rate of 74.9%. Methodology/Approach An exploratory factor analysis was undertaken to falsify or confirm the seven-dimensional framework of skill level. The initial factor analysis consisted of 21 items with three per dimension. The principal component method was applied to reveal the pattern in the factor solution. An orthogonal approach (varimax rotation) was applied to rotate the factor solution. The multi-item measures of each dimension were selected and modified from various sources. The empirical findings provide a foundation for further studies on sales performance. In particular, the findings can be used to assess the relationship between seller skill dimensions on sellers' objective and subjective performance in B2B sales settings. The findings can also be used to assess the relationship between these skill-level indicators on sellers' economic and non-economic satisfaction. Findings Companies could use the reported findings to organize and structure the process of B2B seller planification. This study offers seven verified categories of seller skill level. Companies should focus on each category in relation to their specific industry, so as to optimize sales performance. Seller skills become relevant with respect to taking into consideration the context of sales performance in areas such as planning and organization, recruiting and screening, training, remuneration and motivation, and evaluation and control. Note that companies need to consider the reported seven categories of skill level across all areas of sales performance. Companies should evaluate their sellers in relation to each category of skill level, and offer continuous training that is appropriate to each category. It is evident that training is fundamental to acquiring seller skills. The recruitment and screening of sellers are also important for acquiring sellers with an appropriate level of each category of skill levels. Furthermore, companies need to evaluate the training results of sellers, and offer economic compensation in accordance with the skill level reached in each of the seven categories. This study contributes to creat a B2B framework of seller skills in the context of sales performance. Accordingly, the tested and reported seven-dimensional framework provides a foundation for structuring the skill level dimensions in B2B sales settings. A further opportunity in B2B settings is to assess the structural properties of how the seven dimensions of seller skills are associated with and related to the other sales performance indicators (i.e. seller role perceptions, motivations and aptitude, as well as the influence of organizational and environmental aspects on sellers). One such research opportunity is to assess to what extent there are any moderating and mediating effects between skill level, role perception, motivation, aptitude and organizational/environmental, or whether they all relate only to sales performance in B2B settings. We conclude that the seven-dimensional framework of B2B seller skills in the context of sales performance verified in this study offers satisfactory validity and reliability. We therefore argue that the reported dimensions of B2B seller skills – i.e. interpersonal presentation and communication skills, degree of adaptiveness regarding abilities to modify sales approach and sales behavior, selling-related knowledge about customers and product/technology knowledge, and sales technology use – offer a sound foundation for assessing and following up on sales performance. This study contributes to existing theory and previous studies, thus providing a foundation for framing relevant indicators of sales performance regarding B2B seller skills. The seven-dimensional framework therefore provides a foundation on which to structure the assessment of sales performance in B2B settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to frame the development and directions of business sustainability efforts.Design/methodology/approach A qualitative study was undertaken with respect to a convenience sample of reputable companies in Norway, which have implemented significant business sustainability efforts within their organisations, their business networks, the marketplace and in the society, beyond the level of mere compliance.Findings Different directions are associated with the development of corporate efforts in connection with business sustainability. Business sustainability efforts are not static, but dynamic and based upon continuous flexibility to changes and adaptations over time.Research Limitations/implications The current study highlights the need for further research into the development and directions of corporate efforts in connection with business sustainability in the marketplace and society. A key suggestion for further research is to further explore the existence of other directions.Practical Implications The directions reported, provide a framework to assess the development or the status of companies’ business sustainability efforts in the marketplace and society. Corporate efforts in connection with business sustainability develop over time as experiences are gained and personal impressions move the identified directions forward.Originality/value This study contributes to seven interconnected directions of corporate efforts in connection with business sustainability that are both relevant and potentially fruitful to both scholars and practitioners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to examine a comprehensive set of key factors that are likely to impact undergraduate marketing students' intention to study abroad once it is determined these factors are measured and interpreted the same by students in both the United States and Norway. Based on the literature and in order to help higher-education administrators to improve study-abroad participation rates and enrollment of international students, data from undergraduate marketing majors in the USA and Norway are collected. The key factors examined include both motivators and deterrents to study abroad and also a personality trait referred to as risk aversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The objective of this study is to develop understanding of the interplay between the perceptions of power balance, relationship value, and relationship quality between retail distributors and their suppliers. Methodology: The authors applied a phenomenological approach in both qualitative and quantitative data collections and analyses. Key informants in 27 of the dominant retail distributors within 5 Norwegian industries and 50 of their most important suppliers were interviewed. Findings: The power balance seems to favor the retail distributors. Retail distributors and suppliers tell of somewhat different characteristics pertaining to “best” and “worst” relationships relating to economic-, capability-, and integration-based values as perceived between retail distributors and their suppliers. Research limitations/implications: The empirical findings indicate the complexity in assessing relationship quality and show a rich basis for further research, thereby contributing to knowledge and insights in characterizing relationship quality when power is asymmetrically distributed between distributors and their suppliers. However, personal interviews may reveal answers at rational, cognitive, and even emotional levels, thus complicating subjective analysis. Practical implications: The results of the study are important for both researchers and practitioners on both sides of retail distributor–supplier relationships. Originality/value: This study advances the work on what characterizes relationship quality in asymmetric power business relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – "Business sustainability" refers to the total effort of a company – including its demand and supply chain networks – to reduce the impact on the Earth's life- and eco-systems. The objective of this paper is to describe a business sustainability model based upon a case study of a European manufacturer. Design/methodology/approach – A case study approach was applied describing the efforts of business sustainability in the demand and supply chain networks of a Norwegian office chair producer. It is based upon a series of semi-structured in-depth interviews with top executives of the company as well as observations and content analyses of internal and external documents about the company's efforts of business sustainability. Findings – The case study shows that business sustainability is not about doing just one thing, but that a multitude of simultaneous efforts (e.g. actors, resources and activities) should be in place. Furthermore, business sustainability is not only about a company's own business operations, but its whole demand and supply chain networks which need to be included and taken into consideration. Research limitations/implications – The case study in focus is limited to just one company's effort of business sustainability and its demand and supply chain networks. It provides a business sustainability model that offers opportunities for further research. Practical implications – Focusing on the corporate impact of the natural environment can be highly profitable. Business sustainability and by extension the carbon footprint of demand and supply chain networks is becoming a criterion in the decision-making process of customers across industries. Business sustainability is a concern to everybody in society as the indicatives of climate change and global warming become more evident and troublesome. No one can have missed the fact that the weather is becoming more extreme, causing damage around the globe. Originality/value – The authors argue that research into business sustainability needs at this stage of development to be inductive rather than deductive – it may be an irreversible mistake to try to re-package existing theory into business sustainability, as climate change prediction and the poor condition of the Earth have not been fully understood or comprised in previous theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The objective of this paper is to test the validity and reliability of a SOS construct and its dimensions (i.e. self, other and situational) of negative emotions in the context of consumers' service experience (CSE) and the following processes of service recovery by firms (SRF). Design/methodology/approach – A triangular approach was used, based on interviews and a survey in the Norwegian tourism industry. This paper reports the results from the survey consisting of 3,104 customers. Findings – Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses have been used to examine and test the SOS construct of negative emotions in CSE and SRF. The SOS construct tested has indicated an acceptable fit, validity and reliability. Research limitations/implications – The SOS construct of CSE and SRF may be seen as a seed for future research in refining and extending endeavors of managing critical incidents in CSE and SRF. Practical implications – Strategies to manage CSE and SRF should be aimed at solving the three different SOS dimensions of negative incidents in service encounters, namely those that are caused by the customer, the company, or the situation. Originality/value – The SOS construct brings together, complements and fortifies existing theory and previous research in the context of negative emotions in CSE and SRF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The objective of this paper is to test a selection of hypothesized relationships between: employees' perceived service quality; employees' turnover intentions; role clarity; and empowerment and coaching. Design/methodology/approach -- Drawing from theory, this paper develops a set of hypothesized relationships. The data collection is based on a survey with a sample of 1,076 frontline employees in service organizations. Findings -- There are indications that employees' perceived service quality has a direct negative effect on employees' turnover intentions. The effect of empowerment, coaching, and role clarity on turnover intention appears to be mediated through employees' perceived service quality. Research limitations/implications -- This study is limited to a selection of variables related to employees' turnover intentions. Future research may focus on testing other variables that may be related to employees' turnover intentions. Practical implications -- This study stresses the importance for managers in service organizations to measure employees' perceived service quality. The results show that there are both direct and indirect relationships to employees' turnover intentions. The conclusion is that employees' perceived service quality is an important consideration with respect to employee-turnover management. Originality/value -- This study has developed and tested a set of hypothesized relationships in the field of service management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to develop a RELQUAL-construct and to test its impact on satisfaction in Norwegian business relationships. Design/methodology/approach - This study is based upon a survey and random sample of small and medium-sized companies in Norway. Initially, respondents were contacted by phone and a total of 581 surveys were mailed. A total of 212 surveys were returned, a response rate of 36.5 percent. Findings - Two principal findings are: business relationships characterized by commitment/continuity and coordination/cooperation indicate a higher degree of a company's perceived satisfaction of the supplier; and business relationships characterized by opportunism/distrust and dependence indicate a lower degree of a company's perceived satisfaction of the supplier. Research limitations/implications - The RELQUAL-construct and its impact on satisfaction in business relationships appears to be accurate for those Norwegian business relationships studied, but only further work in examining other companies will verify its universal applicability if it is to be seen as a valid and reliable measurement for other companies' business relationships too. Suggestions for further research are provided. Practical implications - This study is of managerial interest to executives since it provides a framework of dimensions to be considered in corporate efforts in maintaining satisfactory levels of relationship quality in business relationships. Originality/value - The RELQUAL-construct makes a contribution to theory since it proposes a higher order-construct and measurement instrument for the benefit of other researchers and practitioners in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PurposeDesignFindingsResearch implicationsPractical implicationsOriginality\nSUMMARY STATEMENT OF CONTRIBUTIONTo explore the role played by DCT, SM, and CRM through customer knowledge, and market knowledge in the sales performance of a salesforce, and their economic and non-economic satisfaction in B2B sales.A total of 66 B2B Norwegian companies out of 69 participated in this study. A questionnaire with an introduction letter was sent to 356 sellers, and 216 valid questionnaires were used for this study, generating a net response rate of 60.6%. The approach followed was deductive.The results have both purified and simplified the structural relationships in the nomological framework initially posited. The triadic exploration of digital communication tools (DCT), social media (SM), and CRM-solutions (CRM) in relation to customer and market knowledge, the sales performance of a salesforce and their economic and non-economic satisfaction in B2B sales, yield complementary insights to existing theory and previous research.The combined focus on the effect of acquiring customer knowledge and obtaining market knowledge through DCT, SM, and CRM on the sales performance of a salesforce in B2B sales has important implications. The results have simultaneous implications regarding the role of customer and market knowledge through DCT, SM, and CRM in B2B sales.DCT, SM, and CRM enable a salesforce to stay updated and maintain contacts with existing customers, and also facilitate updates, and to getting in contact with potential customers. DCT, SM, and CRM may enable a salesforce to acquire additional information about existing and potential customers. DCT, SM, and CRM may enable a salesforce to obtain more information about the market. Customer and market knowledge may also become more accessible through peers, superiors, or other informants.Contributes to enhancing our understanding of the role of digital communication tools (DCT), social media (SM), and CRM solutions (CRM) through customer knowledge and market knowledge on sales performance in B2B sales. It also contributes to enhancing the understanding of a salesforce’s economic and non-economic satisfaction in B2B sales through DCT, SM, and CRM. The results clarify the structural characteristics between a salesforce’s customer and market knowledge, their sales performance, and economic as well as non-economic satisfaction in B2B sales.This study contributes to knowledge on the role of digital communication tools (DCT), social media (SM), and CRM-solutions (CRM) through customer knowledge and market knowledge on sales performance in B2B sales. It also contributes to the knowledge of salesforces’ economic and non-economic satisfaction through DCT, SM, and CRM. It provides empirical evidence on the structural properties between salesforces’ customer and market knowledge, their sales performance, and economic as well as non-economic satisfaction in B2B sales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]