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Background: Our scientific understanding of the mechanistic and practical connections between training session prescriptions, their execution by athletes, and adaptations over time in elite endurance sports remains limited. These connections are fundamental to the art and science of coaching. Objective: By using successful Norwegian endurance coaches as key informants, the aim of this study is to describe and compare best practice session models across different exercise intensities in Olympic endurance sports. Methods: Data collection was based on a four-step pragmatic qualitative study design, involving questionnaires, training logs from successful athletes, and in-depth and semi-structured interviews, followed by negotiation among researchers and coaches to assure our interpretations. Twelve successful and experienced male Norwegian coaches from biathlon, cross-country skiing, long-distance running, road cycling, rowing, speed skating, swimming, and triathlon were chosen as key informants. They had been responsible for the training of world-class endurance athletes who altogether have won > 370 medals in international championships. Results: The duration of low-intensity training (LIT) sessions ranges from 30 min to 7 h across sports, mainly due to modality-specific constraints and load tolerance considerations. Cross-training accounts for a considerable part of LIT sessions in several sports. Moderate (MIT)- and high-intensity training (HIT) sessions are mainly conducted as intervals in specific modalities, but competitions also account for a large proportion of annual HIT in most sports. Interval sessions are characterized by a high accumulated volume, a progressive increase in intensity throughout the session, and a controlled, rather than exhaustive, execution approach. A clear trend towards shorter intervals and lower work: rest ratio with increasing intensity was observed. Overall, the analyzed sports implement considerably more MIT than HIT sessions across the annual cycle. Conclusions: This study provides novel insights on quantitative and qualitative aspects of training session models across intensities employed by successful athletes in Olympic endurance sports. The interval training sessions revealed in this study are generally more voluminous, more controlled, and less exhaustive than most previous recommendations outlined in research literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The overall aim of the present study was to explore the experiences of older adult exercisers participating in an individualized training program lasting 3 months preparing for completing a triathlon competition. Methods: Fourteen older Norwegian adults (median age (interquartile range, IQR) for males (N=10) and females (N=4) were 70.0 (65.0-75.5) and 57.5 (56.3-62.5) years, respectively) participated in 3-month individualized training program comprising three weekly sessions of running, cycling, and swimming. Both field- and laboratory-based testing were conducted. The participants attended two sports nutrition and competitive psychology seminars focusing on triathlon competition. The participants were interviewed in depth in three different focus groups. Thematic analysis was utilized to analyze the findings. Results: Participants improved their performance in all field-based tests. After completion of the thematic data analysis the main finding and overarching theme of well-being and being fit emerged. Additionally, three main themes were identified: 1) motivation; 2) progress and coping; and 3) breaking barriers. Conclusion: Psychological well-being and satisfaction of being fit seem to be vital to participate in a triathlon competition. Promoting specific age-appropriate participation in sports activities can be an effective strategy for promoting a healthy lifestyle among the elderly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To generate updated Olympic-medal benchmarks for ...O2max in winter endurance disciplines, examine possible differences in ...O2max between medalists and nonmedalists, and calculate gender difference in ...O2max based on a homogeneous subset of world-leading endurance athletes. Methods: The authors identiied 111 athletes who participated in winter Olympic Games/World Championships in the period 1990 to 2013. All identiied athletes tested ...O2max at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center within ±1 y of their championship performance. Testing procedures were consistent throughout the entire period. Results: For medal-winning athletes, the following relative ...O2max values (mean:95% conidence intervals) for men/women were observed (mL ⋅ min-1 ⋅ kg-1): 84:87-81/72:77-68 for cross-country distance skiing, 78:81-75/68:73-64 for cross-country sprint skiing, 81:84-78/67:73-61 for biathlon, and 77:80-75 for Nordic combined (men only). Similar benchmarks for absolute ...O2max (L/min) in male/female athletes are 6.4:6.1-6.7/4.3:4.1-4.5 for cross-country distance skiers, 6.3:5.8-6.8/4.0:3.7-4.3 for cross-country sprint skiers, 6.2:5.7-6.4/4.0:3.7-4.3 for biathletes, and 5.3:5.0-5.5 for Nordic combined (men only). The difference in relative ...O2max between medalists and nonmedalists was large for Nordic combined, moderate for cross-country distance and biathlon, and small/trivial for the other disciplines. Corresponding differences in absolute ...O2max were small/trivial for all disciplines. Male cross-country medalists achieve 15% higher relative ...O2max than corresponding women. Conclusions: This study provides updated benchmark ...O2max values for Olympic-medal-level performance in winter endurance disciplines and can serve as a guideline of the requirements for future elite athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One year of training data from 8 elite orienteers were divided into a transition phase (TP), general preparatory phase (GPP), specific preparatory phase (SPP), and competition phase (CP). Average weekly training volume and frequency, hours at different intensities (zones 1–3), cross-training, running, orienteering, interval training, continuous training, and competition were calculated. Training volume was higher in GPP than TP, SPP, and CP (14.9 vs 9.7, 11.5, and 10.6 h/wk, P < .05). Training frequency was higher in GPP than TP (10 vs 7.5 sessions/wk, P < .05). Zone 1 training was higher in GPP than TP, SPP, and CP (11.3 vs 7.1, 8.3, and 7.7 h/wk, P < .05). Zone 3 training was higher in SPP and CP than in TP and GPP (0.9 and 1.1 vs 1.6 and 1.5 h/ wk, P < .05). Cross-training was higher in GPP than SPP and CP (4.3 vs 0.8 h/wk, P < .05). Interval training was higher in GPP than TP, SPP, and CP (0.7 vs 0.3 h/wk, P < .05). High-intensity continuous training was higher in GPP than CP (0.9 vs 0.4 h/ wk, P < .05), while competition was higher in SPP and CP than in TP and GPP (1.3 and 1.5 vs 0.6 and 0.3 h/wk, P < .01). In conclusion, these champion endurance athletes achieved a progressive reduction in total training volume from GPP to CP via a shortening of each individual session while the number of training sessions remained unchanged. This decrease in training volume was primarily due to a reduction in the number of hours of low-intensity, non-sport-specific cross-training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To quantify VO2max among female competitive soccer players as a function of performance level, field position, and age. In addition, the evolution of VO2max among world-class players over an 18-y period was quantified. Methods: Female players (N = 199, 22 ± 4 y, 63 ± 6 kg, height 169 ± 6 cm), including an Olympic winning squad, were tested for VO2max at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center between 1989 and 2007. Results: National-team players had 5% higher VO2max than 1st-division players (P = .042, d = 0.4), 13% higher than 2nd-division players (P < .001, d = 1.2), and 9% higher than junior players (P = .005, d = 1.0). Midfielders had 8% higher VO2max than goalkeepers (P = .048, d = 1.1). No significant differences were observed across outfield players or different age categories. There was a trend toward lower relative VO2max across time epochs. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that VO2max varies across playing-standard level in women's soccer. No significant differences in VO2max were observed across outfield positions and age categories. Over time, there has been a slight negative development in VO2max among elite Norwegian soccer players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overall objective of this review was to investigate the role and development of sprinting speed in soccer. Time-motion analyses show that short sprints occur frequently during soccer games. Straight sprinting is the most frequent action before goals, both for the scoring and assisting player. Straight-line sprinting velocity (both acceleration and maximal sprinting speed), certain agility skills, and repeated-sprint ability are shown to distinguish groups from different performance levels. Professional players have become faster over time, indicating that sprinting skills are becoming more and more important in modern soccer. In research literature, the majority of soccer-related training interventions have provided positive effects on sprinting capabilities, leading to the assumption that all kinds of training can be performed with success. However, most successful intervention studies are time consuming and challenging to incorporate into the overall soccer training program. Even though the principle of specificity is clearly present, several questions remain regarding the optimal training methods within the larger context of the team-sport setting. Considering time-efficiency effects, soccer players may benefit more by performing sprint-training regimens similar to the progression model used in strength training and by world-leading athletics practitioners, compared with the majority of guidelines that traditionally have been presented in research literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Last Glacial Maximum, the coast of Finnmark county, northern Norway, was covered by the Scandinavian Ice Sheet (SIS), which coalesced with the Barents Sea Ice Sheet (BSIS) off the coast. The region is thus important for our understanding of the dynamic interactions between the BSIS and the SIS, yet it remains one of the least dated regions covered by the SIS. To improve the chronological constraints, we present 23 new 10Be ages from eight localities in northernmost Norway and Finland, and discuss implications for the pattern and timing of ice‐sheet retreat in the region. The samples were collected along a 240‐km‐long north–south transect ranging from the outer coast of Nordkinn peninsula (Norway) to Lake Inarijärvi (Finland). The new exposure ages indicate deglaciation of the outer coast at ~14.5 ka. From there, the ice retreated southward until it reached the Main substage moraine complex just north of the Norwegian‐Finnish border during the Younger Dryas. South of the Main substage moraines the deglaciation appears to have become more rapid, eventually reaching Inari, at the southern end of our transect, around 10.4±1.4 ka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to validate the accuracy of self-reported (SR) training duration and intensity distribution in elite endurance athletes. Methods: Twenty-four elite cross-country skiers (25 ± 4 y, 67.9 ± 9.88 kg, 75.9 ± 6.50 mL • min -1 • kg -11) SR all training sessions during an ~14-d altitude-training camp. Heart rate (HR) and some blood lactate measurements were collected during 466 training sessions. SR training was compared with recorded training duration from HR monitors, and SR intensity distribution was compared with expert analysis (EA) of all session data. Results: SR training was nearly perfectly correlated with recorded training duration (r = .99), but SR training was 1.7% lower than recorded training duration (P < .001). SR training duration was also nearly perfectly correlated (r - .95) with recorded training duration >55% HRmax, but SR training was 11.4% higher than recorded training duration >55% HRmax (P < .001) due to SR inclusion of time <55% HRmax. No significant differences were observed in intensity distribution in zones 1-2 between SR and EA comparisons, but small discrepancies were found in zones 3-4 (P < .001). Conclusions: This study provides evidence that elite endurance athletes report their training data accurately, although some small differences were observed due to lack of a SR "gold standard." Daily SR training is a valid method of quantifying training duration and intensity distribution in elite endurance athletes. However, additional common reporting guidelines would further enhance accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The authors directly compared 3 frequently used methods of heart-rate-based training-intensity- distribution (TID) quantification in a large sample of training sessions performed by elite endurance athletes. Methods: Twenty-nine elite cross-country skiers (16 male, 13 female; 25 ± 4 y; 70 ± 11 kg; 76 ± 7 mL • min-1 • kg-1 VO2max) conducted 570 training sessions during a ~14-d altitude-training camp. Three analysis methods were used: time in zone (TIZ), session goal (SG), and a hybrid session-goal/time-in-zone (SG/TIZ) approach. The proportion of training in zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3 was quantified using total training time or frequency of sessions, and simple conversion factors across different methods were calculated. Results: Comparing the TIZ and SG/TIZ methods, 96.1% and 95.5%, respectively, of total training time was spent in zone 1 (P < .001), with 2.9%/3.6% and l.l%/0.8% in zones 2/3 (P < .001). Using SG, this corresponded to 86.6% zone 1 and 1 l.l%/2.4% zone 2/3 sessions. Estimated conversion factors from TIZ or SG/TIZ to SG and vice versa were 0.9/1.1, respectively, in the low-intensity training range (zone 1) and 3.0/0.33 in the high-intensity training range (zones 2 and 3). Conclusions: This study provides a direct comparison and practical conversion factors across studies employing different methods of TID quantification associated with the most common heart-rate-based analysis methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to quantify maximal aerobic power (VO2max) in soccer as a function of performance level, position, age, and time of season. In addition, the authors examined the evolution of VO2max among professional players over a 23-y period. Methods: 1545 male soccer players (22 ± 4 y, 76 ± 8 kg, 181 ± 6 cm) were tested for VO2max at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center between 1989 and 2012. Results: No differences in VO2max were observed among national-team players, 1st- and 2nd-division players, and juniors. Midfielders had higher VO2max than defenders, forwards, and goalkeepers (P < .05). Players <18 y of age had ~3% higher VO2max than 23- to 26-y-old players (P = .016). The players had 1.6% and 2.1 % lower VO2max during off-season than preseason (P = .046) and in season (P = .021), respectively. Relative to body mass, VO2max among the professional players in this study has not improved over time. Professional players tested during 2006-2012 actually had 3.2% lower VO2max than those tested from 2000 to 2006 (P = .001). Conclusions: This study provides effect-magnitude estimates for the influence of performance level, player position, age, and season time on VO2max in men's elite soccer. The findings from a robust data set indicate that VO2max values ~62-64 mL • kg-1 • min-1 fulfill the demands for aerobic capacity in men's professional soccer and that VO2max is not a clearly distinguishing variable separating players of different standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An Olympic Games is a measurable test of a nation's sporting power. Medal counts are the object of intense scrutiny after every Olympiad. Most countries celebrate any medal with national glee, since 60% of competing countries will win none. In 2012, 10% of the competing countries won 75% of all medals. Despite this concentration among a few countries, more countries are winning more medals now than 20 years ago, thanks in part to athlete-support and -development programs arising around the globe. Small strong sporting countries like Norway are typified by fairly large variation in medal results from Olympiad to Olympiad and a high concentration of results in a few sports. These are important factors to consider when evaluating national performance and interpreting the medal count. Medal conversion, podium placements relative to top 8 placements, may provide a measure of the competitiveness of athlete-support programs in this international zero sum game where the cost of winning Olympic gold keeps rising whether measured in dollars or human capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To compare sprint and countermovement-jump (CMJ) performance among competitive soccer players as a function of performance level, field position, and age. In addition, the authors wanted to quantify the evolution of these physical characteristics among professional players over a 15-y period. Methods: 939 athletes (22.1 ± 4.3 y), including national-team players, tested 40-m sprint with electronic timing and CMJ on a force platform at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center between 1995 and 2010. Results: National-team and lst-division players were faster (P < .05) than 2nd-division (1.0-1.4%), 3rd- to 5th-division (3.0-3.8%), junior national-team (1.7-2.2%), and junior players (2.8-3.7%). Forwards were faster than defenders (1.4%), midfielders (2.5%), and goalkeepers (3.2%) over 0-20 m (P < .001). Midfielders jumped -2.0 cm lower than the other playing positions (P < .05). Sprinting velocity peaked in the age range 20-28 y and declined significantly thereafter (P < .05). Players from 2006-2010 had 1-2% faster 0-20 m and peak velocity than players from the 1995-1999 and 2000-2005 epochs, whereas no differences in CMJ performance were observed. Conclusions: This study provides effect-magnitude estimates for the influence of performance level, position, and age on sprint and CMJ performance in soccer. While CMJ performance has remained stable over the time, there has been a small but positive development in sprinting velocity among professional players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to compare sprint and countermovement-jump (CMJ) performance among female competitive soccer players as a function of performance level, field position, and age. In addition, the authors wanted to quantify the evolution of these physical characteristics among elite players over a 15-y period. Methods: 194 female elite players (22± 4.1 y, 63 ± 5.6 kg), including an Olympic winning squad, tested 40-m sprint with electronic timing and CMJ on a force platform at the Norwegian Olympic training center from 1995 to 2010. Results: Moderate to large velocity differences across performance levels and positions were observed. National-team players were 2% faster than lst-division players (P = .027, d = 0.5) and 5% faster than 2nd-division players (P < .001, d= 1.3) over 0-20 m. National-team players jumped 8-9% higher than 1st-division players (P = .001, d = 0.6) and junior elite players (P = .023, d = 0.5). Forwards were 3^% faster than midfielders (P < .001, d - 0.8) and goalkeepers (P = .003, d - 0.9) over 0-20 m. No differences in velocity or CMJ height were observed among the age categories. Players from 2006-2010 were 2% faster (P < .05, d = 0.6) than players from 1995-1999 over 20 m, whereas no differences in 20- to 40-m velocity or CMJ performance were observed. Conclusions: This study provides effect-magnitude estimates for the influence of performance level, age, and player position on sprint and CMJ performance in female soccer players. While 20- to 40-m velocity and CMJ performance have remained stable over the time, there has been a moderate but positive development in 0- to 20-m velocity among elite performers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study was designed to quantify the daily distribution of training intensity in a group of professional soccer players in Norway based on three different methods of training intensity quantification. Methods: Fifteen male athletes (age, 24 ± 5 y) performed treadmill test to exhaustion to determine heart rate and VOs corresponding to ventilatory thresholds (VT1, VT2), maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) and maximal heart rate. VT1 and VT2 were used to delineate three intensity zones based on heart rate. During a 4 wk period in the preseason (N = 15), and two separate weeks late in the season (N = 11), all endurance and on-ball training sessions (preseason: N = 378, season: N= 78) were quantified using continuous heart rate registration and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE). Three different methods were used to quantify the intensity distribution: time in zone, session goal and sRPE. Results: Intensity distributions across all sessions were similar when based on session goal or by sRPE. However, intensity distribution based on heart rate cut-offs from standardized testing was significantly different (time in zone). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that quantifying training intensity by using heart rate based total time in zone is not valid for describing the effective training intensity in soccer. The results also suggest that the daily training intensity distribution in this representative group of high level Norwegian soccer players is organized after a pattern where about the same numbers of training sessions are performed in low lactate, lactate threshold, and high intensity training zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine whether a lifestyle intervention in pregnancy limits gestational weight gain (GWG) and provides measurable health benefits for mother and newborn.Design: Randomised controlled trial.Setting: Healthcare clinics of southern Norway.Population: Healthy, non-diabetic, nulliparous women, aged ≥18 years, with a body mass index of ≥19 kg/m2 , and with a singleton pregnancy at ≤20 weeks of gestation.Methods: Women were randomised to an intervention group (with dietary counselling twice by telephone and access to twice-weekly exercise groups) or to a control group (with standard prenatal care). Participants were measured three times during pregnancy and at delivery, and newborns were measured at delivery. Hospital records were reviewed for outcomes of pregnancy and delivery. Assessors were blinded to group allocation. Analysis was performed by intention to treat, assessing GWG using the Student's t-test and linear mixed models, and comparing proportions using the chi-square test.Main Outcome Measures: GWG, rates of pregnancy complications and operative deliveries, and newborn birthweight.Results: A total of 606 women were randomised. Of these, 591 were analysed, with 296 in the intervention group and 295 in the control group. At term, the mean GWG from pre-pregnancy was 14.4 kg for the intervention group and 15.8 kg for the control group (mean difference 1.3 kg; 95% confidence interval, 95% CI 0.3-2.3 kg; P = 0.009). There was no significant difference between groups in the frequency of pregnancy complications or operative deliveries. The intervention demonstrated no effect on the mean birthweight of term infants, or on the proportion of large newborns.Conclusions: The Norwegian Fit for Delivery lifestyle intervention in pregnancy had no measurable effect on obstetrical or neonatal outcomes, despite a modest but significant decrease in GWG.Tweetable Abstract: Norwegian Fit for Delivery RCT: reduced gestational weight gain, unchanged birthweight and obstetric outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The effectiveness of prenatal lifestyle intervention to prevent gestational diabetes and improve maternal glucose metabolism remains to be established. The Norwegian Fit for Delivery (NFFD) randomized, controlled trial studied the effect of a combined lifestyle intervention provided to a general population, and found significantly lower gestational weight gain among intervention participants but no improvement in obstetrical outcomes or the proportion of large infants. The aim of the present study is to examine the effect of the NFFD intervention on glucose metabolism, including an assessment of the subgroups of normal-weight and overweight/obese participants.Methods: Healthy, non-diabetic women expecting their first child, with pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) ≥19 kg/m2, age ≥ 18 years and a singleton pregnancy of ≤20 gestational-weeks were enrolled from healthcare clinics in southern Norway. Gestational weight gain was the primary endpoint. Participants (n = 606) were individually randomized to intervention (two dietary consultations and access to twice-weekly exercise groups) or control group (routine prenatal care). The effect of intervention on glucose metabolism was a secondary endpoint, measuring glucose (fasting and 2-h following 75-g glucose load), insulin, homeostatic assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and leptin levels at gestational-week 30.Results: Blood samples from 557 (91.9%) women were analyzed. For the total group, intervention resulted in reduced insulin (adj. Mean diff -0.91 mU/l, p = 0.045) and leptin levels (adj. Mean diff -207 pmol/l, p = 0.021) compared to routine care, while glucose levels were unchanged. However, the effect of intervention on both fasting and 2-h glucose was modified by pre-pregnancy BMI (interaction p = 0.030 and p = 0.039, respectively). For overweight/obese women (n = 158), intervention was associated with increased risk of at least one glucose measurement exceeding International Association of Pregnancy and Diabetes Study Group thresholds (33.7% vs. 13.9%, adj. OR 3.89, p = 0.004).Conclusions: The Norwegian Fit for Delivery intervention lowered neither glucose levels nor GDM incidence, despite reductions in insulin and leptin. Prenatal combined lifestyle interventions designed for a general population may be unsuited to reduce GDM risk, particularly among overweight/obese women, who may require earlier and more targeted interventions.Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov ID NCT01001689 , registered July 2, 2009, confirmed completed October 26, 2009 (retrospectively registered). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine the effect of a prenatal lifestyle intervention on postpartum weight retention (PPWR).Design: Randomised controlled trial.Setting: Healthcare clinics in southern Norway.Population: Healthy, nulliparous women with body mass index ≥19 kg/m2 , age ≥18 years, and singleton pregnancy of ≤20 gestational weeks.Methods: Women were randomised to intervention (dietary counselling twice by phone and access to twice-weekly exercise groups during pregnancy) or control group (standard prenatal care). Intervention compliance was defined post-factum as attending dietary counselling and ≥14 exercise classes.Main Outcome Measures: PPWR (weight measured postpartum minus self-reported pre-pregnancy weight) and the proportion of women returning to pre-pregnancy weight.Results: Of 606 women randomised, 591 were included in an intention-to-treat analysis of pregnancy outcomes and 391 (64.5%) were analysed 12 months postpartum. Mean PPWR was not significantly different between groups (0.66 kg for intervention versus 1.42 kg for control group, mean difference -0.77 kg, 95% CI -1.81, 0.28; P = 0.149). An increased proportion of intervention participants achieved pre-pregnancy weight (53% versus 43%, OR 1.50, 95% CI 1.003, 1.471; P = 0.045). However, the difference was not statistically significant when we adjusted for missing data (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 2.23, P = 0.067) using logistic mixed-effects models analysis. Women compliant with intervention had significantly lower PPWR than control participants, also after adjusting for potential confounders (adjusted mean diff -1.54 kg, 95% CI -3.02, -0.05; P = 0.039).Conclusions: The Norwegian Fit for Delivery intervention had little effect on PPWR, although women who were compliant with the intervention demonstrated significantly lower PPWR at 12 months.Tweetable Abstract: Norwegian Fit for Delivery RCT: little effect of lifestyle intervention on weight retention 1 year postpartum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of vitamin C and E supplementation on changes in muscle mass (lean mass and muscle thickness) and strength during 12 weeks of strength training in elderly men. Thirty-four elderly males (60-81 years) were randomized to either an antioxidant group (500 mg of vitamin C and 117.5 mg vitamin E before and after training) or a placebo group following the same strength training program (three sessions per week). Body composition was assessed with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and muscle thickness by ultrasound imaging. Muscle strength was measured as one-repetition maximum (1 RM). Total lean mass increased by 3.9% (95% confidence intervals: 3.0, 5.2) and 1.4% (0, 5.4) in the placebo and antioxidant groups, respectively, revealing larger gains in the placebo group ( P = 0.04). Similarly, the thickness of m. rectus femoris increased more in the placebo group [16.2% (12.8, 24.1)] than in the antioxidant group [10.9% (9.8, 13.5); P = 0.01]. Increases of lean mass in trunk and arms, and muscle thickness of elbow flexors, did not differ significantly between groups. With no group differences, 1RM improved in the range of 15-21% ( P < 0.001). In conclusion, high-dosage vitamin C and E supplementation blunted certain muscular adaptations to strength training in elderly men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Data on redox plasma aminothiol status in individuals on strength training are very limited. Therefore, we studied the effect of omega-3 and vitamins E + C supplementation on the concentration of B-vitamins and redox aminothiol status in elderly men after strength training for 3 months. Methods: Healthy men, age 60 ± 6 (mean ± SD) were randomly divided into 3 groups: group I received placebo (n = 17), group II consumed omega-3 (700 mg, n = 17), and group III consumed vitamins E + C (235 mg +1 g, n = 16) daily for 3 months. All participants completed a strength training program for the same period. Results: The concentration of serum vitamin B12 decreased and the concentration of serum folate increased in group I after the intervention (p = 0.01, p = 0.009). The concentration of plasma 5-pyridoxal phosphate decreased in groups II and III (p = 0.03 and p = 0.01), whereas the concentration of serum uric acid decreased only in group II (p = 0.02). We detected an increase in the concentration of reduced form of aminothiols in all groups (p < 0.001). The red/ox plasma aminothiol status was significantly changed in all groups after the intervention (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Omega-3 and vitamins E + C supplementation affect the concentrations of serum B-vitamins and redox plasma aminothiol status in healthy elderly men on strength training. © 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pregnancy is characterised by large weight gain over a short period, and often a notable change in mode of transportation. This makes pregnancy suitable for examining the plausible, but in the scientific literature still unclear, association between active transportation and weight gain. We hypothesize that women continuing an active mode of transportation to work or school from pre- to early pregnancy will have a lower gestational weight gain (GWG) than those who change to a less active mode of transportation. Methods: We analysed prospective data from the Norwegian Fit for Delivery (NFFD) trial. Between September 2009 and February 2013 606 women were consecutively enrolled in median gestational week 16 (range; 8-20). Of 219 women who used an active mode of transportation (biking, walking, public transportation) pre-pregnancy, 66 (30 %) converted to a less active mode in early pregnancy ("active-less active" group), and 153 (70 %) continued with active transportation ("active-active" group). Pre-pregnancy weight was self-reported. Weight at gestational (GA) weeks 16, 30, 36, and at term delivery was objectively measured. Weight gain was compared between the two groups. Linear mixed effects analysis of the repeated weight measures was performed including the group*time interaction. Results: A significant overall group effect was observed for the four time points together ("active-active" group: 77.3 kg vs. "active-less active" group: 78.8 kg, p = 0.008). The interaction term group*time was significant indicating different weight gain throughout pregnancy for the two groups; the mean differences between the groups were 0.7 kg at week 16, 1.4 kg at week 30, 2.1 kg at week 36, and 2.2 kg at term delivery, respectively. Conclusion: The findings indicate that active transportation is one possible approach to prevent excessive weight gain in pregnancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There is limited normative, objective data combining musculoskeletal fitness (MSF), balance and physical activity (PA) among older adults. The aims were therefore to; 1) describe MSF and balance in older Norwegian adults focusing on age- and sex-related differences; 2) investigate the associations among MSF, balance and objectively-assessed PA levels.Methods: This was part of a national multicenter study. Participants (65-85 years) were randomly selected from the national population registry. We used ActiGraph GT1M accelerometers to measure PA. Balance and MSF were assessed using: one leg standing (OLS), handgrip strength (HG), static back extension (SBE), sit and reach (SR), back scratch right, left arm over (BSR, BSL). Univariate analyses of variance were used to assess sex differences within the different MSF and balance tests and for comparisons among multiple age groups. Linear regression analysis was used to investigate how PA (expressed in 1000 steps increments) was associated with MSF and balance.Results: 85 women and 76 men were included. Mean age (standard deviation (SD)) was 73.2 (5.4) years for women and 72.3 (4.8) years for men. The youngest participants (65-69 years) had significantly better mean OLS- and SBE results compared with older participants. Women (65-85 years) had significantly better mean SR, BSR, BSL and SBE results compared with men (65-85 years). Men had significantly better mean HG results compared with women. No sex differences in mean OLS results were observed. A daily increment of 1000 steps was associated with better mean test scores for OLS- and SBE tests (b = 1.88, 95% CI: 0.85 to 2.90 (p ≤ 0.001) and b = 4.63, 95% CI: 1.98 to 7.29 (p = 0.001), respectively).Conclusion: The youngest (65-69 years) had better static balance and muscular endurance in trunk extensors compared with older participants. Older women (65-85 years) had better joint flexibility than older men (65-85 years), whereas older men had better handgrip strength than older women. A higher PA level was associated with better static balance and muscular endurance in trunk extensors in older individuals. This study provides important normative data, and further investigation of trunk endurance and static balance as key foci for PA interventions in elderly is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The purpose of the present study was to 1) provide normative data quantifying the physical fitness level and body mass index of 13–15-year-old Norwegian adolescents using a multi-component fitness assessment, and 2) compare the physical fitness of Norwegian teenagers with available European and International fitness data. Methods: 1059 adolescents (529 males, 530 females) from 12 public schools in Kristiansand were invited to testing at age 13, 14, and 15 years (Grades 8–10). Test participation was 75%–80%. The participants performed objectively anthropometrical measures (height and weight) and six field-based physical fitness tests. Results and Conclusions: As expected, sex differences in physical fitness expanded from age 13 to 15. Strength and power increased more in males than females. Aerobic capacity increased slightly in males while remaining stable or tending to decline in females. Balance and gross motor coordination improved identically in males and females from age 13 to 15. Compared to European and International reference data, the sample performed superior in endurance and balance, slightly above median in lower-body strength, but inferior in flexibility. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article presents the results of a study which investigated the effects of timing and start procedure on sprint running performance. An overview of related previous research is provided, detailing considerable variation in timing between various methods and hardware manufacturers. Details of the experiment protocol are also presented, including use of the Brower and Omega's Scan 'O' Vision photofinish timing systems.

Active transportation is a behavior that might contribute to energy balance. However, no clear association between active commuting to school and weight status has been reported in the international literature. Also, new studies indicate that cycling to school might have a greater health potential than walking to school. The purpose of the present study is to assess the potential association between cycling to school and weight status in two European cities, Rotterdam and Kristiansand, where cycling to school remains common. Data from two studies, ENDORSE (Rotterdam) and Youth in Balance (Kristiansand), were used including, respectively, 1361 and 1197 adolescents with mean ages of 14.1 and 14.4 years. The adolescents were categorized as cyclist or non-cyclist based on questionnaires on the usual mode of transportation to school. A total of 25% and 18% were categorized as overweight, and 35% and 31% were categorized as cyclists, in Rotterdam and Kristiansand, respectively. In multilevel logistic analyses, after adjusting for potential moderators, the odds ratios for cyclists being overweight compared with non-cyclists were, respectively, 0.63 (95% CI=0.45-0.89) and 0.52 (95% CI=0.34-0.78) in Rotterdam and Kristiansand. The results presented clearly show a negative association between cycling to school and overweight among adolescents both in Rotterdam and in Kristiansand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To describe long-term somatic growth in terms of weight for age in children operated on for congenital heart defects who die late (after the first 30 postoperative days) and to study the relationship between postoperative weight gain and survival after surgery for congenital heart defects. Methods: This was a nested case-control study of 80 children born in 1990-2002 who died late after surgery for congenital heart defects at Rikshospitalet, Norway. Weight data were obtained for 74 children, of whom 31 with no extra-cardiac anomalies were defined as cases and 31 surviving children with similar surgical complexity were defined as controls. Results: In the 74 children who died late, mean weight for age converted to z scores at birth, at last operation and at last recorded weight were 0.12, -1.31 and -2.09. In the 31 children defined as cases, the same weight z scores were 0.07, -1.21 and -2.01 compared with 0.05, -1.10 and -0.99 in the 31 matched controls. The odds ratio (OR) for death was 13.5 (95% Cl 3.6 to 51.0) if there was a decrease in weight z score of >0.67 after the last operation. Median follow-up time after operation was 5.7 months. Conclusions: A decrease in weight for age during the first months after surgery for congenital heart defects of more than 0.67 z scores, corresponding to a downward percentile crossing through at least one of the displayed percentile lines on standard growth charts, is strongly related to late mortality in children operated on for congenital heart defects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study quantified changes in training volume, organization, and physical capacity among Norwegian rowers winning international medals between 1970 and 2001. Twenty-eight athletes were identified (27 alive). Results of physiological testing and performance history were available for all athletes. Twenty-one of 27 athletes responded to a detailed questionnaire regarding their training during their internationally competitive years. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) increased 12% (6.5± 0.4 vs. 5.8±0.2 L min−1) from the 1970s to the 1990s. Similarly, 6-min ergometer rowing performance increased almost 10%. Three major changes in training characteristics were identified: (1) training at a low blood lactate (<2 mM) increased from 30 to 50 h month−1 and race pace and supra-maximal intensity training (∼8–14 mM lactate) decreased from 23 to∼7 h month−1; (2) training volume increased by∼20%, from 924 to 1128 h yr−1; (3) altitude training was used as a pre-competition peaking strategy, but it is now integrated into the winter preparation program as periodic 2–3-week altitude camps. The training organization trends are consistent with data collected on athletes from other sports, suggesting a“polarized” pattern of training organization where a high volume of low intensity training is balanced against regular application of training bouts utilizing 90%–95% of VO2 max. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The beneficial effects of physical activity during pregnancy for the mother and offspring have been reported by several studies but there are conflicting results concerning the possible effect of physical activity on the course of labor and risk of cesarean delivery. This study presents secondary analyses from the Norwegian Fit for Delivery randomized controlled trial, aiming at studying the effect of a lifestyle intervention including group exercise classes, as well as the possible influence of physical activity level in late pregnancy, on labor outcomes., Material and Methods: Healthy nulliparous women with singleton pregnancy were randomized to an intervention group, n = 303 (dietary counseling and twice-weekly exercise classes) or a control group, n = 303 (standard care). The participants were analyzed both by randomization and as a cohort comparing women with lowest (quartile 1, 0 metabolic equivalent of task-hours moderate-to-vigorous physical activity/week) (n = 140) vs. highest (quartile 4, ≥16 metabolic equivalent of task-hours moderate-to-vigorous physical activity/week) (n = 131) physical activity level in late pregnancy, assessed with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire., Result: The intervention group had a longer first stage of labor compared with the control group (293 ± 202 min vs. 257 ± 181 min, p = 0.030). No differences between the randomization groups were seen for time spent in second stage of labor, prolonged labor or mode of delivery. In the total sample, women with the highest physical activity level had lower odds ratio (OR) of acute cesarean delivery (OR 0.33, 95% CI 0.11-0.97, p = 0.044) than did those with the lowest physical activity-level., Conclusion: A significantly longer first stage of labor was observed in the intervention group than in the control group. A high physical activity level in late pregnancy was associated with lower odds of acute cesarean delivery compared with a low physical activity level., (© 2018 Nordic Federation of Societies of Obstetrics and Gynecology.)

Background: To develop effective health promotional and preventive prenatal programs, it is important to understand perceived barriers to leisure-time physical activity during pregnancy, including exercise and sport participation. The aims of the present study was 1) to assess the effect of prenatal lifestyle intervention on the perceived barrier to leisure-time physical activity during pregnancy and the first year after delivery and 2) identify the most important perceived barriers to leisure-time physical activity at multiple time points during and after pregnancy., Methods: This secondary analysis was part of the Norwegian Fit for Delivery study, a combined lifestyle intervention evaluated in a blinded, randomized controlled trial. Healthy, nulliparous women with singleton pregnancy of ≤20 gestational weeks, age ≥ 18 years and body mass index ≥19 kg/m 2 were recruited via healthcare clinics in southern Norway, including urban and rural settings. Participants were randomized to either twice-weekly supervised exercise sessions and nutritional counselling (n = 303) or standard prenatal care (n = 303). The principal analysis was based on the participants who completed the standardized questionnaire assessing their perceived barriers to leisure-time physical activity at inclusion (gestational week 16, n = 589) and following intervention (gestational week 36, n = 509), as well as six months (n = 470) and 12 months (n = 424) postpartum., Results: Following intervention (gestation week 35.4 ± 1.0), a significant between-group difference in perceived barriers to leisure-time physical activity was found with respect to time constraints: "... I do not have the time" (intervention: 22 vs. control: 38, p = 0.030), mother-child safety concerns: "... afraid to harm the baby" (intervention: 8 vs. control: 25, p = 0.002) and self-efficacy: "... I do not believe/think that I can do it" (intervention: 3 vs. control: 10, p = 0.050). No positive effect was seen at postpartum follow-up. Intrapersonal factors (lack of time, energy and interest) were the most frequently perceived barriers, and consistent over time among all participants., Conclusion: The intervention had effect on intrapersonal perceived barriers in pregnancy, but not in the postpartum period. Perceived barriers to leisure-time physical activity were similar from early pregnancy to 12 months postpartum., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01001689 , registered July 2, 2009.

Purpose: To describe training variations across the annual cycle in Olympic and World Champion endurance athletes, and determine whether these athletes used tapering strategies in line with recommendations in the literature., Methods: Eleven elite XC skiers and biathletes (4 male; 28±1 yr, 85±5 mL x min(-1) x kg(-1) VO2max, 7 female, 25±4 yr, 73±3 mL x min(-1) x kg(-1) VO2max) reported one year of day-to-day training leading up to the most successful competition of their career. Training data were divided into periodization and peaking phases and distributed into training forms, intensity zones and endurance activity forms., Results: Athletes trained ∼800 h/500 sessions x year(-1), including ∼500 h x year(-1) of sport-specific training. Ninety-four percent of all training was executed as aerobic endurance training. Of this, ∼90% was low intensity training (LIT, below the first lactate threshold) and 10% high intensity training (HIT, above the first lactate threshold) by time. Categorically, 23% of training sessions were characterized as HIT with primary portions executed at or above the first lactate turn point. Training volume and specificity distribution conformed to a traditional periodization model, but absolute volume of HIT remained stable across phases. However, HIT training patterns tended to become more polarized in the competition phase. Training volume, frequency and intensity remained unchanged from pre-peaking to peaking period, but there was a 32±15% (P<.01) volume reduction from the preparation period to peaking phase., Conclusions: The annual training data for these Olympic and World champion XC skiers and biathletes conforms to previously reported training patterns of elite endurance athletes. During the competition phase, training became more sport-specific, with 92% performed as XC skiing. However, they did not follow suggested tapering practice derived from short-term experimental studies. Only three out of 11 athletes took a rest day during the final 5 days prior to their most successful competition.

Purpose: To quantify VO2max among female competitive soccer players as a function of performance level, field position, and age. In addition, the evolution of VO2max among world-class players over an 18-y period was quantified., Methods: Female players (N = 199, 22 ± 4 y, 63 ± 6 kg, height 169 ± 6 cm), including an Olympic winning squad, were tested for VO2max at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center between 1989 and 2007., Results: National-team players had 5% higher VO2max than 1st-division players (P = .042, d = 0.4), 13% higher than 2nd-division players (P < .001, d = 1.2), and 9% higher than junior players (P = .005, d = 1.0). Midfielders had 8% higher VO2max than goalkeepers (P = .048, d = 1.1). No significant differences were observed across outfield players or different age categories. There was a trend toward lower relative VO2max across time epochs., Conclusions: This study demonstrated that VO2max varies across playing-standard level in women's soccer. No significant differences in VO2max were observed across outfield positions and age categories. Over time, there has been a slight negative development in VO2max among elite Norwegian soccer players.

Background: The global obesity epidemic has led to increased attention on pregnancy, a period when women are at risk of gaining excessive weight. Excessive gestational weight gain is associated with numerous complications, for both mother and child. Though the problem is widespread, few studies have examined the effect of a lifestyle intervention in pregnancy designed to limit maternal weight gain. The Fit for Delivery study will explore the effectiveness of nutritional counseling coupled with exercise classes compared with standard prenatal care. The aims of the study are to examine the effect of the intervention on maternal weight gain, newborn birth weight, glucose regulation, complications of pregnancy and delivery, and maternal weight retention up to 12 months postpartum., Methods/design: Fit for Delivery is a randomized controlled trial that will include 600 women expecting their first child. To be eligible, women must be 18 years of age or older, of less than 20 weeks gestational age, with a singleton pregnancy, and have a Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥ 19 kg/m2. The women will be randomly allocated to either an intervention group or a control group. The control group will receive standard prenatal care. The intervention group will, in addition, receive nutritional counseling by phone, access to twice-weekly exercise sessions, and information on healthy eating and physical activity provided in pamphlets, evening meetings and an interactive website. Both groups will be monitored by weighing (including bioimpedance measurements of percent body fat), blood tests, self-report questionnaires and hospital record review., Discussion: Weight gained in pregnancy affects the health of both the mother and her unborn child, and simple models for efficient intervention are in high demand. The Fit for Delivery intervention provides concrete advice on limiting energy intake and practical training in increasing physical activity. This lifestyle intervention is simple, reproducible, and inexpensive. The design of the study reflects the realities of clinical practice, where patients are free to choose whether or not they respond to health initiatives. If we find measurable health benefits associated with the intervention, it may be an easily adopted supplement to routine prenatal care, in the prevention of obesity., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrial.gov, NCT01001689.

Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to compare sprint and countermovement-jump (CMJ) performance among female competitive soccer players as a function of performance level, field position, and age. In addition, the authors wanted to quantify the evolution of these physical characteristics among elite players over a 15-y period., Methods: 194 female elite players (22± 4.1 y, 63 ± 5.6 kg), including an Olympic winning squad, tested 40-m sprint with electronic timing and CMJ on a force platform at the Norwegian Olympic training center from 1995 to 2010., Results: Moderate to large velocity differences across performance levels and positions were observed. National-team players were 2% faster than 1st-division players (P = .027, d = 0.5) and 5% faster than 2nd-division players (P < .001, d = 1.3) over 0-20 m. National-team players jumped 8-9% higher than 1st-division players (P = .001, d = 0.6) and junior elite players (P = .023, d = 0.5). Forwards were 3-4% faster than midfielders (P < .001, d = 0.8) and goalkeepers (P = .003, d = 0.9) over 0-20 m. No differences in velocity or CMJ height were observed among the age categories. Players from 2006-2010 were 2% faster (P < .05, d = 0.6) than players from 1995-1999 over 20 m, whereas no differences in 20- to 40-m velocity or CMJ performance were observed., Conclusions: This study provides effect-magnitude estimates for the influence of performance level, age, and player position on sprint and CMJ performance in female soccer players. While 20- to 40-m velocity and CMJ performance have remained stable over the time, there has been a moderate but positive development in 0- to 20-m velocity among elite performers.

Purpose: To investigate the effects of training intensity and duration, through a range representative of training in endurance athletes, on acute recovery of autonomic nervous system (ANS) balance after exercise., Methods: Nine highly trained (HT) male runners (VO2max 72 +/- 5 mL.kg.min(-1), 14 +/- 3 training hours per week) and eight trained (T) male subjects (VO2max 60 +/- 5 mL.kg.min(-1), 7 +/- 1 training hours per week) completed preliminary testing to determine ventilatory thresholds (VT1, VT2) and VO2max. HT performed four intensity-controlled training sessions: 60 min and 120 min below VT1; 60 min with 30 min between VT1 and VT2 (threshold); and 60 min above VT2 (6 x 3 min at 96% VO2max, 2 min of recovery). T also completed the interval session to compare ANS recovery between HT and T. Supine heart rate variability (HRV) was quantified at regular intervals through 4 h of recovery., Results: When HT ran 60 or 120 min below VT1, HRV returned to pretraining values within 5-10 min. However, training at threshold (2.7 +/- 0.4 mM) or above VT2 (7.1 +/- 0.7 mM) induced a significant, but essentially identical, delay of HRV recovery (return to baseline by approximately 30 min). In T, HRV recovery was significantly slower, with HRV returning to baseline by >or=90 min after the same interval session., Conclusions: In the highly trained endurance athlete, exercise for

Aims: Our objectives were, first, to study seasonal distribution of perioperative deaths within 30 days after surgery, and late death, in children undergoing surgery for congenitally malformed hearts, and second, to study the causes of late death., Methods: We analysed a retrospective cohort of 1,753 children with congenital cardiac malformations born and undergoing surgery in the period from 1990 through 2002 with a special focus on the causes of late death. The data was obtained from the registry of congenital cardiac malformations at Rikshospitalet, Oslo, and the Norwegian Medical Birth Registry. The mean follow-up from birth was 8.1 years, with a range from zero to 15.2 years., Results: During the period of follow-up, 204 (11.6%) of the children died having undergone previous surgery. Of these 124 (7.1%) died in the perioperative period, and 80 (4.5%) were late deaths. There were 56 late deaths during the 6 coldest months, compared with 24 during the 6 warmest months (p < 0.01). There was no significant seasonal variation in perioperative deaths. Respiratory infection was the most common cause of late death, and occurred in 25 children, of whom 24 died during the 6 coldest months. Of the 8 sudden late deaths, 7 occurred during the 6 coldest months. There was no seasonal variation for the other causes of death., Conclusions: In children undergoing surgery for congenital cardiac malformations in Norway, there is a seasonal variation in late death, with a higher proportion occurring in the coldest months. Death related to respiratory infections predominantly occurs in the winter season, and is the overall most common cause of late death.

We describe the prevalence of extra-cardiac anomalies in children with congenital cardiac malformations, and their impact on survival, compared to the outcome in children with the congenital cardiac lesions as the only recognised anomaly. Our population comprises the 3527 children born with congenital cardiac anomalies between 1990 and 1999, and registered at the largest tertiary centre for Paediatric Cardiology in Norway. Extra-cardiac anomalies were found in one-fifth of the population, with Down's syndrome accounting for nearly one-third. Survival improved for children born between 1995 and 1999 compared with those born in the period from 1990 to 1994 for all groups, except for children with additional extra-cardiac anomalies in the absence of Down's syndrome. The results were the same for children undergoing surgical treatment of their cardiac malformation. The survival in children with Down's syndrome improved in comparable fashion to those without extra-cardiac anomalies. Children with extra-cardiac anomalies in the absence of Down's syndrome represent a heterogeneous group, with varying patterns of survival. Survival did not improve in these latter patients during the period of our study.