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The receiver function (RF) method is fundamental in assessing mantle seismic discontinuity depths and reflectivities. Most of the current approaches rely on phase equalization, though in many applications, high levels of incoherent noise, incomplete and irregular sampling customarily interfere with the analysis of weak secondary phases. In recent years, advancements in the field of multidimensional seismic data processing have triggered a shift in interest towards its application to RFs, specifically to single station gathers that depend on a single spatial dimension. Our work generalizes the application of singular spectrum analysis to RFs that rely on two and four spatial dimensions recorded by dense seismic arrays. We adopt a multidimensional signal processing approach known as multichannel singular spectrum analysis. We develop a strategy to assemble and enhance 3-D and 5-D seismic volumes via matrix rank reduction and a reinsertion algorithm to simultaneously suppress random noise, retrieve absent observations and boost identifiability of secondary conversions. We provide informative synthetic examples to gain insight into the effectiveness and limitations of our approach. In the real data example, we improve weak conversions from the mantle transition zone (MTZ) recorded by the USArray in the Yellowstone area. The reconstruction algorithm accurately recovers the timing and polarity of conversions associated with the 410-, 520- and 660-km seismic discontinuities. Our investigation shows that the simultaneous processing of several spatial variables expedites signal restoration, particularly in directions where large recording gaps exist due to a lack of earthquakes, which aids the mapping and identification of the MTZ interfaces. This study presents a theoretical/practical framework for the reconstruction of multidimensional RF data, and its full potential can be exploited with dense acquisition available from the emerging seismic nodal arrays to improve passive seismic imaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, advanced synchrotron-based and globar-sourced techniques are almost unknown to food and feed scientists. There has been little application of these advanced techniques to study blend pellet products at a molecular level. This article aims to provide recent research on advanced synchrotron and globar vibrational molecular spectroscopy contributions to advances in blend pellet products research on molecular structure and molecular nutrition interaction. How processing induced molecular structure changes in relation to nutrient availability and utilization of the blend pellet products. The study reviews Utilization of co-product components for blend pellet product in North America; Utilization and benefits of inclusion of pulse screenings; Utilization of additives in blend pellet products; Application of pellet processing in blend pellet products; Conventional evaluation techniques and methods for blend pellet products. The study focus on recent applications of cutting-edge vibrational molecular spectroscopy for molecular structure and molecular structure association with nutrient utilization in blend pellet products. The information described in this article gives better insight on how advanced molecular (micro)spectroscopy contributions to advances in blend pellet products research on molecular structure and molecular nutrition interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing has become a valuable tool in monitoring arctic environments. The aim of this paper is ground-based hyperspectral characterization of Low Arctic Alaskan tundra communities along four environmental gradients (regional climate, soil pH, toposequence, and soil moisture) that all vary in ground cover, biomass, and dominating plant communities. Field spectroscopy in connection with vegetation analysis was carried out in summer 2012, along the North American Arctic Transect (NAAT). Spectral metrics were extracted, including the averaged reflectance and absorption-related metrics such as absorption depths and area of continuum removal. The spectral metrics were investigated with respect to "greenness", biomass, vegetation height, and soil moisture regimes. The results show that the surface reflectances of all sites are similar in shape with a reduced near-infrared (NIR) reflectance that is specific for low-growing biomes. The main spectro-radiometric findings are: (i) Southern sites along the climate gradient have taller shrubs and greater overall vegetation biomass, which leads to higher reflectance in the NIR. (ii) Vegetation height and surface wetness are two antagonists that balance each other out with respect to the NIR reflectance along the toposequence and soil moisture gradients. (iii) Moist acidic tundra (MAT) sites have "greener" species, more leaf biomass, and green-colored moss species that lead to higher pigment absorption compared to moist non-acidic tundra (MNT) sites. (iv) MAT and MNT plant community separation via narrowband Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) shows the potential of hyperspectral remote sensing applications in the tundra. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a prospective cross-sectional study to establish a normative database of peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness, macular thickness, and retinal layer thickness in healthy North American children, using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD OCT). The results of this study indicated that SD OCT can be used to assess peripapillary RNFL thickness, macular thickness, and retinal layer thickness in children as young as 5 years.

We review the population dynamics of red-backed voles ( Myodes species) in North America, the main deciduous and coniferous forest-dwelling microtines on this continent, and compare and contrast their pattern with that of the same or similar species in Eurasia. We identify 7 long-term studies of population changes in Myodes in North America. Using autoregressive and spectral analysis, we found that only 2 of the 7 show 3- to 5-year cycles like those found in some Eurasian populations. There was no relationship between latitude and cycling. The general lack of cyclicity is associated with two key aspects of their demography that act in tandem: first, poor overwinter survival in most years; second, chronically low densities, with irregular outbreak years. Eight factors might explain why some Myodes populations fluctuate in cycles and others fluctuate irregularly, and we review the evidence for each factor: food supplies, nutrients, predation, interspecific competition, disease, weather, spacing behavior and interactive effects. Of these eight, only food supplies appear to be sufficient to explain the differences between cyclic and non-cyclic populations. Irregular fluctuations are the result of pulsed food supplies in the form of berry crops ( M. rutilus) or tree seeds ( M. gapperi) linked to weather patterns. We argue that, to understand the cause for the patterns in the respective hemispheres, we must know the mechanism(s) driving population change and this must be linked to rigorous field tests. We suggest that a large-scale, year-round feeding experiment should improve overwintering survival, increase standing densities, and flip non-cyclic Myodes populations into cyclic dynamics that would mimic the patterns seen in the cyclic populations found in parts of Eurasia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While most research into the sex tourism industry focuses on the often stark inequalities that exist between sex tourists and sex workers, there are a plethora of other subjects that are involved in the complicated web of transnational interactions involving travel and sex. This article focuses on the ways in which other subjects who may not actually be present in sex tourism spaces are constructed and put to use in the context of sex tourism. The aim is to explore the ways in which sex tourists and sex workers imagine and invoke two specific groups, Costa Rican men and North American women, in order to make meaning out of their encounters with one another. The article asks how these imagined others are implicated in sex tourism and how they are made present in ways that enable commercial sex between North American tourists and Latin American sex workers in San José, Costa Rica. I argue that understanding sex tourism necessitates looking at the relationships between various social groups rather than only between sex tourists and sex workers, in order to better understand the intense complexities of the encounters of transnational, transactional sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The adequacy of the 30%-rule to predict the seismic demand on bridge columns subjected to bi-directional earthquake components is examined for two North American sites in areas of moderate seismic hazard: Montreal, in the east, and Vancouver, along the west coast. For both sites, historical and simulated ground motion earthquake ensembles are considered. Time history analyses were performed on generic bridge models to determine the critical response of the columns under pairs of orthogonal seismic ground motion time histories. Response spectrum analyses were also carried out to determine the maximum response in each direction and the critical response was estimated using the 30%-rule. The results show that the combination rule is tributary of both ground motion and bridge characteristics. Results also show that the 30%-rule as currently prescribed in codes leads to an adequate estimation of the bi-directional elastic seismic demand on regular bridge columns. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) is the most destructive insect infesting mature pine forests in North America and has devastated millions of hectares of forest in western Canada. Past studies have demonstrated the use of multispectral imagery for remote identification and mapping of visible or red attack damage in forests. This study aims to detect pre-visual or green attack damage in lodgepole pine needles by means of hyperspectral measurements, particularly via continuous wavelet analysis. Field measurements of lodgepole pine stands were conducted at two sites located northwest of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. In June and August of 2007, reflectance spectra (350–2500nm) were collected for 16 pairs of trees. Each of the 16 tree pairs included one control tree (healthy), and one stressed tree (girdled to simulate the effects of beetle infestation). In addition, during the period of June through October 2008, spectra were collected from 15 pairs of control- and beetle-infested trees. Spectra derived from these 31 tree pairs were subjected to a continuous wavelet transform, generating a scalogram that compiles the wavelet power as a function of wavelength location and scale of decomposition. Linear relationships were then explored between the wavelet scalograms and chemical properties or class labels (control and non-control) of the sample populations in order to isolate the most useful distinguishing spectral features that related to infested or girdled trees vs. control trees. A deficit in water content is observed in infested trees while an additional deficit in chlorophyll content is seen for girdled trees. The measurable water deficit of infested and girdled tree samples was detectable from the wavelet analysis of the reflectance spectra providing a novel method for the detection of green attack. The spectral features distinguishing control and infested trees are predominantly located between 950 and 1390nm from scales 1 to 8. Of those, five features between 1318 to 1322nm at scale 7 are consistently found in the July and August 2008 datasets. These features are located at longer wavelengths than those investigated in previous studies (below 1100nm) and provide new insights into the potential remote detection of green attack. Spectral features that distinguish control and girdled trees were mostly observed between 1550 and 2370nm from scales 1 to 5. The differing response of girdled and infested trees appears to indicate that the girdling process does not provide a perfect simulation of the effects caused by beetle infestation. It remains to be determined if the location of the 1318–1322nm features, near the edge of a strong atmospheric water absorption band, will be sufficiently separable for use in airborne detection of green attack. A plot comparing needle water content and wavelet power at 1320nm reveals considerable overlap between data derived from both infested and control samples, though the groups are statistically separable. This obstacle may preclude a high accuracy separation of healthy and infected single individuals, but establishing threshold identification levels may provide an economical, efficient and expeditious method for discriminating between healthy and infested tree populations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The authors use singular spectrum analysis to investigate the relative magnitude of decadal to multidecadal (D2M) variability in annual and seasonal precipitation anomalies across North America. In most places, decadal (10–20 yr) or multidecadal (20–50 yr) variability makes up less than 10% of the total variance in either annual or seasonal precipitation, with interannual variability or secular trends having much greater importance. Decadal variability is most prominent (contributing 25%–30% of the total variance) in Minnesota and northern California during winter, and the central Rocky Mountains in autumn. Eastern Québec is the only major region where precipitation exhibits significant variance in the multidecadal band. Precipitation across much of Canada exhibits significant variance at extremely low frequencies (greater than 50 yr), but variability at these time scales cannot be separated from secular trends because of the limited length of instrumental climate records. Decadal signals in the discharge of the Sacramento River and, to a lesser degree, the Colorado River are coherent and in phase with similar signals in regional precipitation. Prominent D2M signals do not resemble the low-frequency components of major climate modes such as ENSO or the PDO, which suggests that this behavior is not a product of a simple linear translation of a single climate forcing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two new polyynes, named oplopantriol A (5) and oplopantriol B (6), were isolated from the root bark of Oplopanax horridus (Smith) Miq, an ethnic medicinal plant of North America, along with four known polyynes: (3S,8S)-falcarindiol (1), oplopandiol (2), (11S,16S,9Z)-9,17-octadecadiene-12,14-diyne-1,11,16-triol, 1-acetate (3) and oplopandiol acetate (4). The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by detailed spectroscopic analyses, including 1D and 2D NMR techniques and chemical methods. The absolute configurations of the new compounds 5 and 6 were determined by comparing their optical rotation values with the hydrolysis products of the known compounds 3 and 4, respectively, derived from the same plant. On the basis of an analysis of their physical and chemical properties we show that the alkaline hydrolysis of 3 and 4 afforded the new compounds 5 and 6, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The surface gravity data collected via traditional techniques such as ground-based, shipboard and airborne gravimetry describe precisely the local gravity field, but they are often biased by systematic errors. On the other hand, the spherical harmonic gravity models determined from satellite missions, in particular, recent models from CHAMP and GRACE, homogenously and accurately describe the low-degree components of the Earth's gravity field. However, they are subject to large omission errors. The surface and satellite gravity data are therefore complementary in terms of spectral composition. In this paper, we aim to assess the systematic errors of low spherical harmonic degrees in the surface gravity anomalies over North America using a GRACE gravity model. A prerequisite is the extraction of the low-degree components from the surface data to make them compatible with GRACE data. Three types of methods are tested using synthetic data: low-pass filtering, the inverse Stokes integral, and spherical harmonic analysis. The results demonstrate that the spherical harmonic analysis works best. Eighty-five per cent of difference between the synthetic gravity anomalies generated from EGM96 and GGM02S from degrees 2 to 90 can be modelled for a region covering North America and neighbouring areas. Assuming EGM96 is developed solely from the surface gravity data with the same accuracy and GGM02S errorless, one way to understand the 85 per cent difference is that it represents the systematic error from the region of study, while the remaining 15 per cent originates from the data outside of the region. To estimate systematic errors in the surface gravity data, Helmert gravity anomalies are generated from both surface and GRACE data on the geoid. Their differences are expanded into surface spherical harmonics. The results show that the systematic errors for degrees 2 to 90 range from about −6 to 13 mGal with a RMS value of 1.4 mGal over North America. A few significant data gaps can be identified from the resulting error map. The errors over oceans appear to be related to the sea surface topography. These systematic errors must be taken into consideration when the surface gravity data are used to validate future satellite gravity missions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A growing number of investigations have shown that remote sensing of foliar nitrogen (N) concentration in plant canopies can be achieved with imaging spectroscopy, or hyperspectral remote sensing, from satellite or airborne sensors. Development of this approach has been fueled by recognition that foliar N is related to a variety of ecological and biogeochemical processes, ranging from the spread of invasive species to the ecosystem effects of insect defoliation events to patterns of N cycling in forest soils. To date, most studies have focused on building site-specific foliar N detection algorithms applied to individual scenes or small landscapes that have been intensively characterized with local field measurements. However, the growing number of well-measured sites, combined with improvements in image data quality and processing methods provide an opportunity to begin seeking more general N detection methods that can be applied to a broader range of sites or to locations that lack intensive field measurements. Here, we combine data from several independent efforts in North America, Central America and Australia, to examine whether development of calibration methods to determine canopy nitrogen concentration across a wide range of forest ecosystems is possible. The analysis included data from 137 individual field plots within eight study sites for which imagery has been acquired from NASA''s Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) and/or Hyperion instruments. The combined dataset was used to evaluate site-specific calibration results as well as results obtained with data pooled across all sites. We evaluated the accuracy of results using plot- and site-level cross-validation wherein individual plots or entire sites were withheld and used as an independent validation of the resulting algorithms. In instances where all sites were represented in the calibration, canopy-level foliar N concentration was predicted to within 7–15% of the mean field-measured values indicating a strong potential for broadly applied foliar N detection. When whole sites were iteratively dropped from the calibration and predicted by remaining data, predictions were still significant, but less accurate (7–47% of mean canopy-level N concentration). This suggests that further development to include a wider range of ecosystems will be necessary before cross-site prediction accuracy approaches that seen in site-specific calibrations. Nevertheless, we view these results as promising, particularly given the potential value of foliar N estimates, even at a reduced level of confidence, at sites for which there is no possibility of conducting field data collections. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The timing of the first human migration into the Americas and its relation to the appearance of the Clovis technological complex in North America at about 11,000 to 10,800 radiocarbon years before the present (14C years B.P.) remains contentious. We establish that humans were present at Paisley 5 Mile Point Caves, in south-central Oregon, by 12,300 14C years B.P., through the recovery of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from coprolites, directly dated by accelerator mass spectrometry. The mtDNA corresponds to Native American founding haplogroups AZ and B2. The dates of the coprolites are >1000 14C years earlier than currently accepted dates for the Clovis complex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Annual area burned (AAB) variability in northwestern North America was inferred from 38 treering width chronologies widely distributed across boreal regions and spanning the past 300 years and the minimum 1833-1998 interval. AAB estimates accounted for up to 61% of the variance in AAB observed from 1959 to 1998, and were verified using a split sample calibration-verification scheme. Spatial correlation maps of gridded temperature and precipitation data provided an indication of the reliability of the reconstruction to approximate fire-conducive climate variability beyond the period of calibration. Singular spectrum analysis and analysis of variance suggested that AAB has significantly changed during the course of the past 150 years toward increasing variance. Recent 1959-1998 decadal changes in AAB of northwestern North America fitted well within an oscillatory mode centred on 26.7 years and accounting for 21.1% of the variance in the reconstruction. As in previous studies, the current findings suggest that AAB is correlated to seasonal land/ocean temperature variability and that future warming could lead to greater AAB. However, the study has the weakness of not accounting for complex interactions between climate and ecosystem processes and thus its results should be interpreted with caution. We suggest that a calibration model conducted on multiple types of fire proxies (tree rings, charcoal data, fire scars and stand-establishment records) could be relevant for addressing these weaknesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (ΔNBR) is widely used to map post-fire effects in North America from multispectral satellite imagery, but has not been rigorously validated across the great diversity in vegetation types. The importance of these maps to fire rehabilitation crews highlights the need for continued assessment of alternative remote sensing approaches. To meet this need, this study presents a first preliminary comparison of immediate post-fire char (black ash) fraction, as measured by linear spectral unmixing, and ΔNBR, with two quantitative one-year post-fire field measures indicative of canopy and sub-canopy conditions: % live tree and dry organic litter weight (gm-2). Image analysis was applied to Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) imagery acquired both before and immediately following the 2000 Jasper Fire, South Dakota. Post-fire field analysis was conducted one-year post-fire. Although the immediate post-fire char fraction (r 2 = 0.56, SE = 28.03) and ΔNBR (r 2 = 0.55, SE = 29.69) measures produced similarly good predictions of the % live tree, the standard error in the prediction of litter weight with the char fraction method (r 2 = 0.55, SE = 4.78) was considerably lower than with ΔNBR (r 2 = 0.52, SE = 8.01). Although further research is clearly warranted to evaluate more field measures, in more fires, and across more fire regimes, the char fraction may be a viable approach to predict longer-term indicators of ecosystem recovery and may potentially act as a surrogate retrospective measure of the fire intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the capability of the dynamic downscaling method (DDM) in a North American regional climate study using the Eta/Simplified Simple Biosphere (SSiB) Regional Climate Model (RCM). The main objective is to understand whether the Eta/SSiB RCM is capable of simulating North American regional climate features, mainly precipitation, at different scales under imposed boundary conditions. The summer of 1998 was selected for this study and the summers of 1993 and 1995 were used to confirm the 1998 results. The observed precipitation, NCEP–NCAR Global Reanalysis (NNGR), and North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR) were used for evaluation of the model’s simulations and/or as lateral boundary conditions (LBCs). A spectral analysis was applied to quantitatively examine the RCM’s downscaling ability at different scales. The simulations indicated that choice of domain size, LBCs, and grid spacing were crucial for the DDM. Several tests with different domain sizes indicated that the model in the North American climate simulation was particularly sensitive to its southern boundary position because of the importance of moisture transport by the southerly low-level jet (LLJ) in summer precipitation. Among these tests, only the RCM with 32-km resolution and NNGR LBC or with 80-km resolution and NARR LBC, in conjunction with appropriate domain sizes, was able to properly simulate precipitation and other atmospheric variables—especially humidity over the southeastern United States—during all three summer months—and produce a better spectral power distribution than that associated with the imposed LBC (for the 32-km case) and retain spectral power for large wavelengths (for the 80-km case). The analysis suggests that there might be strong atmospheric components of high-frequency variability over the Gulf of Mexico and the southeastern United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought is the most economically expensive recurring natural disaster to strike North America in modern times. Recently available gridded drought reconstructions have been developed for most of North America from a network of drought-sensitive tree-ring chronologies, many of which span the last 1000 yr. These reconstructions enable the authors to put the famous droughts of the instrumental record (i.e., the 1930s Dust Bowl and the 1950s Southwest droughts) into the context of 1000 yr of natural drought variability on the continent. We can now, with this remarkable new record, examine the severity, persistence, spatial signatures, and frequencies of drought variability over the past milllennium, and how these have changed with time. The gridded drought reconstructions reveal the existence of successive “megadroughts,” unprecedented in persistence (20–40 yr), yet similar in year-to-year severity and spatial distribution to the major droughts experienced in today’s North America. These megadroughts occurred during a 400-yr-long period in the early to middle second millennium a.d., with a climate varying as today’s, but around a drier mean. The implication is that the mechanism forcing persistent drought in the West and the Plains in the instrumental era is analagous to that underlying the megadroughts of the medieval period. The leading spatial mode of drought variability in the recontructions resembles the North American ENSO pattern: widespread drought across the United States, centered on the Southwest, with a hint of the opposite phase in the Pacific Northwest. Recently, climate models forced by the observed history of tropical Pacific SSTs have been able to successfully simulate all of the major North American droughts of the last 150 yr. In each case, cool “La Niña–like” conditions in the tropical Pacific are consistent with North American drought. With ENSO showing a pronounced signal in the gridded drought recontructions of the last millennium, both in terms of its link to the leading spatial mode, and the leading time scales of drought variability (revealed by multitaper spectral analysis and wavelet analysis), it is postulated that, as for the modern day, the medieval megadroughts were forced by protracted La Niña–like tropical Pacific SSTs. Further evidence for this comes from the global hydroclimatic “footprint” of the medieval era revealed by existing paleoclimatic archives from the tropical Pacific and ENSO-sensitive tropical and extratropical land regions. In general, this global pattern matches that observed for modern-day persistent North American drought, whereby a La Niña–like tropical Pacific is accompanied by hemispheric, and in the midlatitudes, zonal, symmetry of hydroclimatic anomalies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ground motion records from recent earthquakes show that near-fault ground motions are different from far-field ground motions in that they often contain strong coherent dynamic long period pulses and permanent ground displacements. The objective of the current study is to assess the safety implications of near-fault earthquakes (NFE) on nuclear power plant structures designed according to North American codes. Fifty-four fault-normal near-fault records in the forward directivity were selected for this investigation. Spectral comparison of the selected earthquake records with the US and Canadian design spectra was conducted. From the investigation it was concluded that the current nuclear design spectra may need to be adjusted to better reflect the effect of near-fault earthquake ground motions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In a previous work, cast in axisymmetric flat geometry, we have shown that a realistic composite rheology (linear plus nonlinear) for the Earth’s mantle reproduces the postglacial isostatic readjustment of Laurentia significantly better than a purely linear one. In this work we address the same problem in a 3D flat geometry allowing to apply the ice load described by the ICE-3G deglaciation history without manipulations. Computation is numerically carried out through finite elements as the nonlinear formulation prevents the use of spectral methods. The goodness of fit is quantitatively tested by comparing observed and computed Relative Sea Level (RSL) data at 29 North American sites for the last 8 kyr. The mixed rheology model still shows a slightly but significantly better fit (in the statistical sense) than the linear model. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Anthropogenic aerosols enhance cloud reflectivity by increasing the number concentration of cloud droplets, leading to a cooling effect on climate known as the indirect aerosol effect. Observational support for this effect is based mainly on evidence that aerosol number concentrations are connected with droplet concentrations, but it has been difficult to determine the impact of these indirect effects on radiative forcing. Here we provide observational evidence for a substantial alteration of radiative fluxes due to the indirect aerosol effect. We examine the effect of aerosols on cloud optical properties using measurements of aerosol and cloud properties at two North American sites that span polluted and clean conditions-a continental site in Oklahoma with high aerosol concentrations, and an Arctic site in Alaska with low aerosol concentrations. We determine the cloud optical depth required to fit the observed shortwave downward surface radiation. We then use a cloud parcel model to simulate the cloud optical depth from observed aerosol properties due to the indirect aerosol effect. From the good agreement between the simulated indirect aerosol effect and observed surface radiation, we conclude that the indirect aerosol effect has a significant influence on radiative fluxes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth of the EGL USA Group and its opening of new laboratories in North America have created a need for better communication and databases for rough and polished diamonds coming to our labs for testing. The basic idea is to store all data (identification number, weight, size, shape, screening results with DiamondSure, color, clarity, fluorescence, UV-Vis-NIR absorption, FTIR, photoluminescence [PL], and cathodoluminescence [CL] spectra, along with other necessary advanced tests, as appropriate) in one system called the Cross-referencing Identification System (CIS). The system will be interactive and will enable the searching and cross-referencing of data. It will permit statistical analysis of each of the categories. For example, it could easily calculate the percentage of each characteristic that is present in the diamonds tested by the laboratories. There are three levels of the CIS system: • Level I: ABCD (4 groups) contains basic information, fluorescence, and absorption testing in the visible region of the spectrum. This level is sufficient to positively identify, for example, most yellow diamonds with cape lines. • Level II: A12-D21 (8 groups) contains, in addition to the data from Level I, FTIR and UV-Vis-NIR absorption data. Level II is sufficient for the identification of all cape diamonds, as well as most irradiated, type Ia HPHT-treated, and synthetic diamonds. • Level III: A1-D1 (16 groups) is the highest level of identification and will record, in addition to the data from Levels I and II, the amount of impurities, PL spectra, "hot" CL, photo of "cold" CL, chemical analysis with X-ray fluorescence (XRF), as well as photography in visible light, UV radiation, and under crossed polarizers. Data collected at this level makes it possible to identify all treatments of diamonds and all synthetic diamonds. The goal of this new system is to standardize communication both within EGL USA group and internationally, and to increase the database chronicling old and new treatments of natural and synthetic diamonds. International labs with advanced instruments also could connect with the CIS system and exchange "virtual samples" to increase the database and detect more treatments and synthetics. Diamond mining companies, diamond manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers would benefit by the increased confidence in selling their products with proper disclosure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]