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Competing Interests: Declaration of interests KH has been supported by the Esther Ting Memorial Professorship at Stanford University School of Medicine and research grants from the US Veterans Administration Health Services Research and Development Service (RCS 04-141-3, HX-12-001, and HX002714-01A2), the US National Institute on Drug Abuse (3UG1 DA015815-17S4 and 2UG1DA015815-19), the US Food and Drug Administration, Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, the Silicon Valley Community Foundation, the County of Santa Clara California, and the American Board of Family Medicine. He has received speaking honoraria and travel expenses from the American College of Medical Toxicology, Arizona State University, Barclays Bank, Caron Foundation, the University of Florida, the New York Museum of Modern Art, Syracuse University, West Virginia University School of Medicine, and the West Virginia Medical Professionals Health Program. He has received writing honoraria or royalties from the Association of Psychological Science, American Academy of Political and Social Science, Brookings Institution, Cambridge University Press, and Washington Monthly. He has been a paid consultant to AELIS Pharma, Harvard Medical School, and Harvard University Press. CLS has been employed by Stanford University, the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Heluna Health, and the Los Angeles LGBT Center. She has received research funding or stipends from the US National Institute on Drug Abuse (K01DA050771, T32DA035165), the RAND Opioid Policy Tools and Information Center), Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, and UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, and speaking honoraria or travel expenses from Emory University, New York University, UCLA, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the University of Southern California, the University of Pittsburgh, the University of Chicago, the University of Western Ontario, the Nevada State Medical Association, RAND, the University of California, Irvine, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, College on Problems of Drug Dependence, the Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, HIV Research for Prevention, Addiction Health Services Research, and the American Psychopathological Association. CMA has been supported by the Arnold School of Public Health at the University of South Carolina, and by research grants from the US National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA034634, K01DA041628, U2CDA050097, R01DA049776, and R01DA052425), the US National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (R01AA029097 and R01AA029821), and the South Carolina Department of Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse Services, and has been a paid consultant to the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, RTI International, the Medical University of South Carolina, the State of Pennsylvania Department of Public Health, and the State of Illinois Division of Health Care and Family Services. ASBB has been supported by grants from the US National Institutes for Health (R01 DA045705), the US Veterans Health Administration (IIR 13-322 and C19 21-278), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U01CE002780), Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan, the US Department of Defense, the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute, the Michigan Health Endowment Fund, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration via sub-contracts from the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, has received speaker honoraria or travel expenses from the Illinois Health and Hospital Association, the International Summit on Suicide Research, the Washington State Department of Labor & Industries, the American Psychopathological Association, and the High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area program, has been paid as a consultant by New York University, and has received products from Fitbit at a reduced cost and Headspace for free for research purposes. MLB has been supported by research grants from the US Department of Veterans Affairs and the US National Institute on Drug Abuse (R37-DA15612), and a Koret Foundation gift for Smart Cities and Digital Living, has received travel expenses from the University of Maryland, the University of Auckland, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the European Working Group on Stochastic Modeling, INSEAD, the University of Michigan, and the University of Oklahoma, and has been a paid consultant to Compass Lexecon and DE Shaw. JPC has received a National Science Foundation EAGER Grant on Detecting and Disrupting Illicit Supply Networks via Traffic Distribution Systems, is a consultant to the RAND Corporation's Drug Policy Research Center, has consulted with or received honoraria from the Actis—Norwegian Policy Network on Alcohol and Drugs, the Arnold Foundation, Bank of Montreal, Boston University, the Foreign Affairs, Justice Research and Statistics Association, Lisbon Addictions Conference, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, National Affairs, the National Institute of Justice, Oxford University Press, Pew, PIRE, the Russell Sage Foundation, Springer Verlag, Stanford University, the US State Department, Texas Research Society on Alcoholism, the US Veteran's Administration, Washington Monthly, and the WT Grant Foundation. JHC has received research support or funding from the US National Institutes of Health and National Library of Medicine (R56LM013365), the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (GBMF8040), the US National Science Foundation (SPO181514); Google (SPO13604), the Stanford Clinical Excellence Research Center, the Stanford Department of Medicine and Department of Pathology, and the Stanford Aging and Ethnogeriatrics Research Center (P30AG059307), which is part of the Resource Centers for Minority Aging Research programme led by the US National Institute on Aging at the National Institutes of Health, is the co-founder of Reaction Explorer (which develops and licenses organic chemistry education software), and has been paid consulting or speaker fees by the US National Institute of Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network, Tuolc, Roche, and Younker Hyde MacFarlane. M-FC has served as president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, a justice of the Supreme Court of California, the Herman Phleger Professor at Stanford Law School, a distinguished visiting jurist at the New York University School of Law, the Castle Distinguished Lecturer in Ethics, Politics, and Economics at Yale University, a member of the President & Fellows of Harvard College (the Harvard Corporation), a member of the board of directors of the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, a member of the Council of the American Law Institute, chair of the board of directors of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, chair of the advisory board of the Seed Initiative at the Stanford Graduate School of Business, and a member of the advisory board at the Stanford Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence Institute. His work has been supported by Stanford Law School and by a grant from the Stanford Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence Institute, and he was previously chair of the advisory board of the AI Now Institute at New York University. YLH has received research grants from the US National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA050323, DA048613, DA008227, DA043247, DA030359, DA037317, and DA15446), research funding from GW Pharmaceuticals, speaking honoraria or travel expenses, or both, from the University of North Carolina, the American Society for the Advancement of Science, the Society for Neuroscience Public Education & Communication Committee, Washington University in St Louis, Temple University, Tufts School of Medicine, Indiana University, the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, the Iowa Neuroscience Institute, the Franklin Institute, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, the Canadian Consortium for the Investigation of Cannabinoids, the University of Michigan, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, the US National Institutes of Health, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, the US National Academy of Medicine, the Mediterranean Neuroscience Society, the Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Society of Biological Psychiatry, International College of Neuropharmacology, the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies, Gordon Research Conference, the National Institutes of Health Center for Scientific Research Council, and the Society of Neuroscience. DNJ has received research grants from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research and the Ontario Ministry of Health, financial support from the departments of medicine at both the University of Toronto and Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, travel expenses or speaking honoraria from Dalhousie University, the University of Ottawa, the University of Saskatchewan, the University of Calgary, the Bloomberg Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, the American College of Physicians, the University of Alabama at Birmingham, the American Society of Nephrology, the Canadian Society of Internal Medicine, the Canadian Anesthesiologists' Society, The Canadian Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the Western Canada Addiction Forum, and the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Health, and payment for expert witness testimony from (and has been retained by) Sanis, a generic drug manufacturer and distributor to provide advice related to an ongoing Canadian class action, and is a volunteer member of Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing. HKK has been supported by grants from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (77667, 74275, and 73359), the John Templeton Foundation (52125), the JPB Foundation (1085 and 439), and the Association of State and Territorial Health Officers (1584), has received honoraria from Jefferson University, Jefferson Health, the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, MaineHealth Center for Tobacco Independence, Harvard University Memorial Church, the Association of State and Territorial Health Officials, the University of Wisconsin Medical School, Wake Forest Baptist Health (in partnership with Shaw University), the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation advisory committee, the American College of Gastroenterology, and Tufts University School of Medicine, has been a consultant to the Commonwealth Fund, and is a member of the Community COVID Coalition Advisory Group, Phillips Academy Public Health Expert Advisory Panel, the Policy Advisory Group, the board of the Bipartisan Policy Center, the Palliative and Advanced Illness Research Center External Advisory Board (at the Perelman School of Medicine), the American Cancer Society Eastern New England Area Council of Advisors, the American University of Beirut International Advisory Council, the US National Advisory Board, the Culture of Health Year in Review Advisory Committee and Culture of Health as a Business Imperative Initiative of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the editorial board of the Journal of the American Medical Association, the New England Donor Services board of trustees, the Josiah Macy Jr Foundation board of directors, and the Lancet–O'Neill Institute, Georgetown University Commission on Global Health and the Law. EEK has received research funding from the US Department of Veterans Affairs Health Services Research and Development (COR 19-489, 1I01HX003063-01A1, 5I01HX001752-05, 5I01HX002737-02, 5I01HX001288-05, and 5I01HX000911-06), the Patient Centered Outcomes Research Institute (OPD-1511-33052), the US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (5R01AT008387-04, 5UH3AT009761- 04/5UG3AT009761-02, and 4UH3AT009765-03/5UG3AT009765-02), and the US National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (1U01DK123816-01), and travel expenses from the law firm Nix Patterson representing the state of Oklahoma (to serve as an expert witness in support of the state's litigation against opioid manufacturers), the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, the Association of Academic Physiatrists, the Australian Pain Society, the Cleveland VA Medical Research and Education Foundation, the Duke-Margolis Center for Health Policy, the Foundation for Medical Excellence, the Foundation for Opioid Response Efforts, the Friends of VA Medical Care and Health Research, the Hennepin Healthcare Research Institute, the Indiana Institute for Medical Research, the US National Academies of Medicine, the US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, the National Governors Association, the North American Spine Society, the Patient Centered Outcomes Research Institute at Stanford University, the US Food and Drug Administration, and the Washington State Department of Labor & Industries. AL has received consulting fees for her work as a medical expert witness in federal and state litigation against opioid manufacturers, distributors, and pharmacies, book royalties from Johns Hopkins University Press and Dutton Penguin Random House, speaking honoraria or travel expenses, or both, from the Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, the Ohio State University School of Medicine, the University of Kansas School of Medicine (sponsorship of the Alpha Omega Alpha Visiting Professorship), the Oregon Pain Guidance, the Indiana Prosecuting Attorneys Council, the Perrin's Opioid Litigation Conference, the Public Funds Forum, the Baton Rouge Health District, the Montrose Colorado Annual Continuing Medical Education Conference, the PerformRX Pharmacy Benefits Manager Annual Conference, the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, the Psych Congress, the 69th Annual Canadian Refresher Course for Family Physicians, the Ohio State University Inter-Professional Summit, the University of Texas, the Geminus Community Partners Annual Conference of Indiana, the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Abuse, the Stanford Sierra Camp Womens' Alumni Wellness Retreat, the American Psychiatric Association, the Association for Medical Education and Research in Substance Abuse, and the Southwestern Gynecologic Assembly. SCM has been supported by the Redlich Professorship and the Rosekrans Pain Research Endowment Fund at Stanford University School of Medicine and research grants awarded to Stanford University from the US National Institutes of Health (R61NS118651, R03HD094577, R01DA045027, R01NS109450, R01AT008561, K24DA02926207, R01DA035484, and P01AT00665105), the Patient Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI OPD-1610- 370707), the Stanford Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, and the University of California, San Francisco–Stanford Center of Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation (FDA) (2U01FD005978-06), has received speaking honoraria or travel expenses from Walter Reed, Harvard University, the American Academy of Pain Medicine, Washington University, the US Food and Drug Administration, the US National Institutes of Health, the US National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, the University of Washington, George Washington University, New York University, Weill Cornell Medical College, Duke University, the University of Utah, the World Institute of Pain, and the Canadian Pain Society, has received payment for testimony (unrelated to opioids) from Lauria Tokunaga Gates and Linn, and has received payment for consulting (unrelated to opioids) from the American Society of Anesthesiology; Favros Law; Fain Anderson VanDerhoef Rosendahl O'Halloran Spillane; Cox, Wootton, Lerner, Griffin & Hansen; Lewis Brisbois Bisgaard & Smith; Muro & Lampe; McCormick Barstow; Schmid & Voiles; and the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center. LLO has received travel expenses or honoraria from Cardozo Law School, Claremont McKenna College, Duke University, ETH Zürich, Georgetown University, Harvard University, the Los Angeles Intellectual Property Law Association, Michigan State University, New York University, Northwestern University, the University of Chicago, the University of Houston, the University of Kansas, the University of Nebraska, the University of San Diego, the University of Texas, the University of Villanova, the World Intellectual Property Organization, and Yale University, has received a writing honoraria from the Brookings Institution (to write a policy proposal for the Hamilton Project), and is a paid consultant to the MITRE Corporation (to assist with evaluations of the US Patent and Trademark Office requested by the Department of Commerce). BS has received research support from the US National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01 AA023650 and K23 AA023284), the US National Institute of Drug Abuse (R21 DA043181), the US National Institute of Mental Health (P50MH115838), and the US National Highway Transportation Safety Authority, has received royalties from a software licence to healthStratica, and has several invention disclosures with the University of Pittsburgh for digital behavioral interventions. CT has been supported by the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA HSR&D IIR 15-298, IIR 18-253, IIR 20-058, and PPO 16-337) and the US National Institutes of Health (NIAAA 1R01AA024136-01).