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Hydrogen (H 2) storage, transport, and end-user provision are major challenges on pathways to worldwide large-scale H 2 use. This review examines direct versus indirect and onboard versus offboard H 2 storage. Direct H 2 storage methods include compressed gas, liquid, and cryo-compression; and indirect methods include physical and chemical adsorption and chemical carriers. In this review paper, we examine these different systems, identifying and discussing challenges related to safe and efficient storage, operating conditions, and applications. Research and development activities related to the economic, safety, and environmental aspects of H 2 storage and transportation in North America are also examined in detail. Technically, pressurized H 2 storage tanks (350 and 700 bar) have not reached the technical onboard applications target of 0.050 kgH 2 /L, where tanks' mass, size, and price are critical limiting factors. High specific energy consumption (SEC) and inevitable boil-off H 2 losses in liquefaction systems reduce their performance. H 2 liquefaction plants can be considered an efficient method for hydrogen storage by reducing energy consumption to less than 6 kWh/kgLH 2 and increasing the capacity of liquefaction systems more than 100 t/day. Various studies are ongoing despite the drawbacks of the irreversibility of H 2 adsorption/desorption operations (100–400 ˚C), successive cooling and heating cycles, and slow refueling in synthesized metal hydride (MH) systems. Insights and recommendations for H 2 storage and transportation in North America suggest short-, medium-, and long-term strategies. Short-term scenarios focus on compressed H 2 in light and heavy vehicles, energy consumption reduction in the provision of liquefied H 2 for ship and truck transport, and using existing natural gas (NG) transmission infrastructures for H 2 /NG mixtures (5–20 vol%). Medium-term scenarios address high-volume H 2 storage for stationary applications using compressed gas storage in upstream and underground tanks, liquid storage in large, insulated tanks, and higher purity H 2 transfer in NG pipelines. Long-term scenarios focus on large-volume subsurface geological storage and basement space use. Additionally, various standards and codes for H 2 storage technologies in North America are categorized. [Display omitted] • This review paper focuses on different H 2 storage strategies and their performance improvement. • Challenges related to safe and efficient storage conditions of H 2 are highlighted. • Various research and engineering potentials of H 2 storage in North America are discussed. • The salt/rock caverns and pipelines for H 2 bulk storage in North America are examined. • Standards/codes and future prospects for H 2 storage technologies in North America are classified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The current status and future prospects of hydrogen production and utilization are discussed. • Challenges and government regulations for hydrogen production in North America are addressed. • High energy consumption and CO 2 emissions are the main challenges for conventional H 2 production. • Hydrogen storage materials are still lacking in both volumetric and gravimetric density. • Biohydrogen production needs further research and development before commercialization. Hydrogen is one of the most efficient and attractive energy carriers that can fulfill current and future energy requirements and address the drawbacks of conventional energy resources. Hydrogen as a fuel is nonmetallic, carbon-free, non-toxic, and has higher specific energy than gasoline (on a mass basis). Hydrogen production, storage, safety, and utilization are the four main aspects that should be considered in hydrogen energy-based systems. This review extensively analyzes the literature on fundamental, technological, and environmental aspects of various hydrogen applications and production techniques as well as theoretical and practical challenges. The global demand for hydrogen is mainly for its utilization in oil refineries (33%), chemical production (40%), metallurgical industries (3%), and the rest is in applications such as fuel, glass manufacturing, welding processes, and food industries. Natural gas, crude oil, coal, and electrolysis processes are the main feedstock sources for hydrogen production, with shares of 49, 29, 18, and 4%, respectively. Currently, hydrocarbon and alcohol reforming, gasification (coal and fossil fuels), and fossil fuel partial oxidation have the greatest shares of the hydrogen production methods. The main challenges for these methods are the high total energy consumption and carbon emissions to the environment. Water electrolysis technologies are still under development and can be combined with renewable energy resources, such as solar, geothermal, wind, and tidal to achieve eco-friendly technologies. Biohydrogen production through biological approaches such as direct and indirect biophotolysis, and photo and dark fermentation processes can be sustainable and promising technologies for bioenergy production worldwide. This review investigates the various thermochemical cycles for hydrogen production and presents the process flow diagram of each cycle. It discusses the different chemical and physical methods and materials for hydrogen storage. In fact, hydrogen storage materials are still lacking in both volumetric and gravimetric density, and in some cases, they do not have promising storage capacity. The current status of hydrogen production, available resources, various challenges in the field of hydrogen production, storage and transportation, and government regulations in North America are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]