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Context: Globally, plant species are facing numerous threats; an issue particularly acute for island floras, which often exhibit high levels of endemism. Ex situ conservation in seed banks is an important tool for plant conservation. However not all species' seeds can be stored in conventional seed banks. Data on seed storage behaviour are therefore vital for conservation decision making. Aims: To review available seed storage information for the New Zealand (NZ) indigenous seed plant flora, 86% of which are endemic. Methods: We compiled seed storage information for the NZ flora from databases and existing literature, and used boosted regression trees models to investigate predictors of seed storage behaviour for NZ woody plants. We used existing global models to predict the likely storage behaviour for the NZ woody flora where this was unknown, to examine the overall contribution that conventional seed banking could make towards NZ plant conservation. Key results: Data were available for 412 of 1823 seed plants, of which 83% produced orthodox seeds that can be stored in a conventional seed bank. Of the woody flora, the incidence of non-orthodox seeds was positively correlated with seed mass, plant height, biotic dispersal, and habitat diurnal temperature range. Eighty-one percent of the woody flora are predicted to produce orthodox seeds. Conclusions and implications: Conventional seed banking is likely to be suitable for a high proportion of the NZ flora. However, work is required to gain further seed storage behaviour data for NZ species, and to develop protocols for alternative ex situ conservation strategies for non-orthodox species, especially those facing in situ conservation threats. Seed banks are an important tool for plant conservation. However not all species can be stored. We compiled information on seed storage for New Zealand plants, finding that 83% could be stored in a seed bank. Plants unable to be banked are generally bird-dispersed canopy trees, including some threatened species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eco-evolutionary priority effects, in which early arriving taxa pre-empt environmental niches and evolve to exclude or marginalise later arriving taxa, have been claimed to have influenced current vegetation communities in New Zealand. We here critically assess this claim. An examination of the entire New Zealand conifer and angiosperm flora shows that early arriving lineages do not have more species than later arriving lineages, and do not dominate regional species pools. A nationwide forest plot data set shows no influence of lineage age on tree dominance. Woody species with wide latitudinal ranges tend to be older, but plant height and biotically dispersed fruit exert a stronger influence. Range extent is not influenced by lineage age in the alpine zone. The New Zealand studies on which the original claim for eco-evolutionary priority effects is based are flawed as they sample only a small fraction of the flora and plant communities and base their conclusions on a few selected lineages. The large climatic and landscape alterations of the last 50 million years, changes in the type and number of immigrant taxa establishing, and extinction are likely to have been much more influential than arrival times in shaping the extant New Zealand flora. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The capacity of Indigenous peoples to officially name taonga species (flora and fauna) within taxonomy signifies resilience and a reworking of western scientific processes and institutions. This article explores the ways in which Ngāti Kuri women contribute to environmental justice through the naming of taonga species. Ngāti Kuri were the first tribe in the world to install a tribal name into the co‐authorship of a nomenclature. The article explores the ways in which Ngāti Kuri women, both past and present, rework environmental relationships and knowledge in both tribal and non‐tribal spaces in Aotearoa's most northern region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present data on sexual systems and associated traits in the New Zealand angiosperm flora and discuss reasons for the anomalously high levels of gender dimorphism in the flora, and the low levels of monoecy in woody species. Along with Hawai’i and New Caledonia, New Zealand has exceptionally high levels of gender dimorphism (19.5% of angiosperm species). The plant traits associated with gender dimorphism (woody growth, small, unspecialised white to yellow-green flowers, abiotic pollination, fleshy fruit) are the same as those in other regions and most gender dimorphic species belong to lineages that were already gender dimorphic on arrival in New Zealand. We attribute the high levels of gender dimorphism to several distinct factors. New Zealand’s evergreen forests have many small trees and understorey shrubs with fleshy fruit and small, open, inconspicuous flowers, a combination characterised by high levels of gender dimorphism elsewhere. Many of these species belong to lineages that migrated from the tropical north, a region with high levels of gender dimorphism. In comparison with many other regions, the New Zealand angiosperm flora has few annuals, and few plants with large, specialised flowers or pollinated by birds, traits elsewhere associated with exceedingly low levels of gender dimorphism. Finally, chance may have played a role through the association of gender dimorphism with rapidly radiating lineages. While the New Zealand angiosperm flora has similar levels of monoecy (14.2%) to other comparable regions, monoecy is exceptionally uncommon in the tree flora (3.4% for strictly monoecious species). However, the endemic Nothofagaceae and introduced woody monoecious species thrive in New Zealand. We suggest it is the lack of temperate sources for monoecious tree species, combined with the difficulty large-fruited monoecious tropical species have in crossing ocean gaps that may be ultimate reason for their failure to establish in greater numbers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealand's algal flora is still far from fully explored, and new taxa continue to be discovered. The taxonomy of the red algal order Hildenbrandiales, consisting mostly of crustose members, is controversial as descriptions are largely based on limited morphological features. The order Hildenbrandiales is also in a close, apparently obligate, relationship with an endophytic fungus. Apophlaea is a genus in this order currently comprising two described species, both endemic to New Zealand. The morphology of this genus is more complex than that of other members of the Hildenbrandiales as it consists of extensive upright thalli. Sampling of Apophlaea in New Zealand, especially in the southern part of the North Island, has led to the discovery of a genetically distinct entity, that is only crustose. We propose a new species for this entity, Apophlaea darchinoae sp. nov., which is found on rocks in the high intertidal zone. This species has the typical tetrasporangial conceptacles of Apophlaea and no other reproductive structures were observed, and it consists of filaments that are laterally joined by secondary pit connections. Apophlaea darchinoae can be found in sympatry with A. sinclairii in the north of the North Island. We provide molecular evidence for the distinct nature of A. darchinoae and provide observations of extensive fungal filaments within this new species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new combination Tridontium cockaynei J.E.Beever, Fife & J.A.Jiménez is made, and a new species Tridontium milleneri J.E.Beever, Fife & J.A.Jiménez is described. The name T. cockaynei, first published as Trichostomum cockaynei R.Br.bis (1897), has priority over Weissia weymouthii R.Br.bis (1899), the basionym of Tridontium weymouthii (R.Br.bis) J.A.Jiménez & M.J.Cano (2021). Tridontium milleneri is described and named in honour of Prof. L.H. Millener. This article is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the Plant Names Database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phylogenetic analyses resolved that specimens from Manawatāwhi/Three Kings Islands in northern New Zealand, formerly identified as Sonderophycus coriaceus, belong to the genus Agissea (Peyssonneliales). This species is dark red, prostrate and robust, with leathery, fan-shaped lobes and is described here as Agissea teruruhau. It was found to serve as a host to a very small red algal epiphyte described here as Piriora waewaiti gen. & sp. nov. While phylogenetic analyses have placed Piriora in the Gigartinales, the familial placement of this genus has been unable to be resolved. Manawatāwhi/Three Kings Islands is a group of small islands known to harbour a rich marine biota with many endemic species, and the description of these taxa has increased the reported endemic algal flora of the islands. In addition, the phylogenetic analyses have confirmed the presence of Olokunia boudouresquei and a further three species of Peyssonneliales in the New Zealand flora, belonging to the genera Olokunia, Peyssonnelia and Seiria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three naming systems have been applied to the flora of Aotearoa New Zealand, but differences in their use are poorly understood. Analyses of 45 sets of Māori and settlers' vernacular plant names and botanical names in Papers Past between 1839 and 1948 shows that Māori plant names were well-used in referring to the flora. Māori plant names (2,242,201; 82.6%) are mentioned more than settlers' names (465,155; 17.1%) or botanical nomenclature (8,193; 0.3%). Māori name usage was dominant from 1839 to 1858, declined during 1859–1868 when settlers' names were featured, and increased from 53.15% in 1869 to 90.89% in 1948. In Papers Past, 32 (71.0%) of the 45 Māori plant name(s) are mentioned most often, followed by 11 (24.5%) settlers' and two (4.5%) botanical names. Analysis of the 45 sets of names in four New Zealand science journals (1863–2020) shows the number of name mentions to be: botanical nomenclature 10,827 (54.4%), Māori 6,731 (33.8%) and settlers' 2,341 (11.8%). Botanical nomenclature (35 names) and Māori names (10 names) were the most mentioned of the 45 sets of names in the science journals. Analysis of the 45 sets of names in a Google Search undertaken in 2021 confirmed the prevalence of Māori names (92.5%) over botanical nomenclature (7.5%). The most mentioned Māori names refer to plants of economic importance such as rimu, mānuka and mataī. The overall dominance of Māori plant name mentions does not support recent contentions that botanical nomenclature has 'set aside' and 'replaced' these. Further, the low number of total mentions of botanical nomenclature in Papers Past and the science journals suggests little is to be gained from promoting the use of Māori epithets in botanical nomenclature for newly named taxa, and a strategy for the promotion of Māori plant names in the context of indigenous ecological knowledge is perhaps desirable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous plant naming systems and systematic botanical nomenclature involve different methodologies that result in different knowledge systems. Botanical nomenclature provides a single, universal name for a plant based on its taxonomic and evolutionary relationships. Indigenous classifications allow ready identification of plants for particular communities sharing a common language and cultural milieu to which the names are specific. The two systems are independent, but they can profit from mutual comparison, and each should be respected and valued for its distinctive role. A recent proposal argues that indigenous vernacular plant names, being older than those given in colonial circumstances, should have priority over existing botanical names. This suggestion, along with the call for greater use of indigenous languages in specific epithets, is here discussed in relation to the New Zealand flora. We conclude that the proposal would require extensive, complex changes to the International Code of Nomenclature, result in nomenclatural instability, and subject indigenous names to the rules of botanical nomenclature while severing them from their local cultural contexts. We suggest the proposal undermines indigenous naming systems, threatens the integrity of indigenous languages, and would disrupt botanical nomenclature for little benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The electronic Flora of New Zealand – Ferns and Lycophytes includes 466 basionyms relevant to the New Zealand flora. These names are typified by 281 lectotypes, 4 neotypes, 1 conserved type, 4 names for which a designation has not been made, and 25 for which a type could not be located. The remaining 151 basionyms have been considered in initial editions of the Flora as having holotypes. However, 37 of these require lectotypification in order to comply with the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, as well as suggestions for "best practice". This is either because the full extent of original material was not considered, or had not been located, or because specimens that had been cited by other authors as holotypes and isotypes are, in reality, often syntypes from which a lectotype must be chosen. 21 of these 37 lectotypes have been inadvertently designated by earlier authors, and a further 16 are designated here for the first time. Lectotypes are being chosen where possible for all names at specific and subspecific rank, for which no holotype was designated by the original author, in order to fix the application of the name concerned. Justification for the choice is provided in each case. This article is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the plant names database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Introduces a contemporary molecular analytics workflow centered on evolutionary relationships into biocontrol risk analysis. • Recommends the use of patristic (phylogenetic) distance over degrees of separation. • Employed target sequence capture for tribal-level phylogenomic analysis on flaxleaf fleabane case study. A concern in weed biological control research is the potential for candidate biocontrol agents to impact not only the target weed but also native or economically important flora. The degree of evolutionary relatedness between the target weed species and a non-target species is a key predictor of the susceptibility of the non-target to the biocontrol agent. To manage this risk, biocontrol practitioners need to understand the phylogenetic position of the host weed relative to non-target plant species. However, comprehensively sampled phylogenetic trees are often unavailable, with incomplete information scattered across multiple publications. Further, older published phylogenies based on Sanger sequence data often lack branch resolution and support, which increases uncertainty in biocontrol decision making. Decreasing sequencing cost and technological advances have led to phylogenomic approaches being more widely used to understand evolutionary relationships between species. For example, target capture sequencing methods using bait kits such as Angiosperms353 enable cost-effective and timely phylogenomic-level analysis of flowering plant groups at different scales. Here, we introduce a workflow to embed a comprehensive understanding of evolutionary relationships into the efficient development of host test lists in weed biological control. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the workflow through a case study on the major crop weed flaxleaf fleabane (Erigeron bonariensis). Phylogenomic analysis was conducted on 280 species of the tribe Astereae (family Asteraceae) occurring in Australia and New Zealand, clarifying relationships between the target species and related clades of native and non-native Astereae. We consider the phylogenetic tree in the context of a previously proposed host test list and discuss taxonomic implications, highlighting avenues of future molecular-based work to uncover the origin of Australian fleabanes. This study provides a workflow and demonstrates the practical application of target sequence capture for phylogenomic inference to support risk analysis and decision making in classical weed biological control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Some plant traits may be legacies of coevolution with extinct megafauna. One example is the convergent evolution of 'divaricate' cage architectures in many New Zealand lineages, interpreted as a response to recently extinct flightless avian browsers whose ancestors arrived during the Paleogene period. Although experiments have confirmed that divaricate habit deters extant browsers, its abundance on frosty, droughty sites appears consistent with an earlier interpretation as a response to cold, dry Plio‐Pleistocene climates.We used 45 protein‐coding sequences from plastid genomes to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the divaricate habit in extant New Zealand lineages. Our dated phylogeny of 215 species included 91% of New Zealand eudicot divaricate species.We show that 86% of extant divaricate plants diverged from non‐divaricate sisters within the last 5 Ma, implicating Plio‐Pleistocene climates in the proliferation of cage architectures in New Zealand.Our results, combined with other recent findings, are consistent with the synthetic hypothesis that the browser‐deterrent effect of cage architectures was strongly selected only when Plio‐Pleistocene climatic constraints prevented woody plants from growing quickly out of reach of browsers. This is consistent with the abundance of cage architectures in other regions where plant growth is restricted by aridity or short frost‐free periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aotearoa's (New Zealand's) biological heritage is in decline due to threats such as climate change and habitat destruction. Aotearoa's biological heritage and the wider environment are critical to the Māori world view and culture and Māori have long advocated for greater engagement in efforts to reverse this decline. One negative outcome of localised declines in biological heritage is a concomitant loss of local Māori language (dialectical) terms. Compounding this is the growing use of standardised Māori terms that can displace local dialectical terms. This also runs the risk of losing the associated mātauranga (knowledge) that is inherent in the meaning of these local terms for their unique flora and fauna. Retaining this biocultural knowledge is considered important and could play a role in conservation efforts. This collaborative research addressed the concerns articulated by a Māori biological heritage expert about the loss of their own unique local Māori terms for flora and fauna. The research explored ways to retain and empower local indigenous biocultural terms via the creation of a static visual educational resource for Tūhoe–Tuawhenua youth displaying the forest vegetation of their rohe (area that defines a tribe's traditional mandate or authority). The plants in the final resource are identified by their local Māori term and their corresponding scientific name. Depicting ecological accuracy in the artwork was a specific requirement of the kaumātua and created some unique outcomes in how the artwork formed. The approaches employed in this research and an analysis of the results and wider implementation are discussed. The loss of Māori dialects has allowed the loss of mātauranga, leading to the loss of dialectal terms for local flora and fauna. This collaborative research addressed the concerns articulated by a Māori biocultural heritage expert about the loss of their own unique local Māori terms for flora and fauna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is argued that the greater use of te reo Māori and ta re Moriori languages for naming new taxa in the flora of Aotearoa / New Zealand supports the aspirations of Māori and Te Tiriti o Waitangi. However, using these indigenous languages in botanical nomenclature is more complex than a simplistic 'more is better', and we identify a number of issues requiring consideration. We appraise Waitangi Tribunal claim Wai 262 and Te Tiriti o Waitangi, collaboration at the interface of mātauranga Māori and research science, debate whether iwi are active collaborators or informants, and, crucially, defend the credibility and utility of te reo Māori / ta re Moriori and botanical nomenclatural systems. We conclude that (1) formal botanical nomenclature and (2) te reo and ta re vernacular plant names are independent, complementary, and mutually supportive classifications, each with different purposes and denoting two functional knowledge systems. Our recommendation when naming new taxa is to derive names from botanical Latin terminology. To provide clarity for the application of indigenous languages in naming Aotearoa / New Zealand vascular plants and bryophytes, an assessment of the rules and recommendations in the International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) is presented, including the use of geographical, personal and plant vernacular names as epithets, diacritical signs, hyphens, combinations of different languages, and epithet authorship. For those considering using te reo or ta re names for a new taxon, we present guidelines that address dialogue between scientists and iwi, key aspects of the ICN to consider, and suggestions for maintaining the scientific credibility of nomenclatural practices. A knowledge gap is identified for ethnobotanical folk taxonomy research into vernacular te reo and ta re names, and to document and promote this mātauranga we recommend Māori-led research into etymology, hierarchical structure, cultural relationships, whakapapa, and relationships to botanical names. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise of research. The Miocene Punta Basílica Beds (northeast of Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia, Argentina) preserved a flora rich in insect herbivory traces. Here we document its insect damage and compare it with three Miocene floras from northwestern Argentina (low-latitude San José and Palo Pintado) and New Zealand (high-latitude Hindon Maar). In addition, comparisons are established for insect damage observed on Miocene Nothofagus in the Punta Basílica flora and the New Zealand Hindon Maar, Double Hill, and Kaikorai floras. Methodology. Plant-insect interactions were photographed and determined for 209 fossil leaves collected at the Punta Basílica locality. Leaves were censused for the presence/absence of functional feeding types. Pivotal results. Six functional feeding groups and 26 damage types (DTs) were recognized: hole (seven DTs) and margin (five DTs) feeding, skeletonization (six DTs), piercing and sucking (two DTs), mining (three DTs), and galling (three DTs). Nothofagus spp. are the most affected members of the paleoflora. Both of the low-latitude paleofloras compared have lower percentages of damaged leaves than the high-latitude ones; hole and margin feeding, mining, and skeletonization are recognized at all floras. Hole and margin feeding and skeletonization are recognized on Nothofagus leaves and are the most common functional feeding groups; hole feeding on Nothofagus is more prominent at Hindon Maar and Kaikorai than at Double Hill and Punta Basilíca. Additionally, Nothofagus specimens from Hindon Maar and Punta Basílica have evidence of mining, whereas galling is observed only on the New Zealand leaves. The Punta Basílica Nothofagus specimens are the only ones with piercing and sucking. Conclusions. Southernmost Miocene records of leaf herbivory worldwide and the first record from Argentine Patagonia are rich and comprise several functional feeding groups also observed in other Miocene paleofloras from the Southern Hemisphere. Clearly, multiple biotic and abiotic factors explain differences in the intensity of folivory. This report evidences the need for additional studies on herbivory at high-latitude floras. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lineage through time plots (LTTs) are often used to explore past patterns of lineage diversification and community assembly. However, as they are based solely on extant species their ability to accurately depict past events can be questioned. Here, simulation models based on neutral processes are used to explore immigration and extinction scenarios to assist with interpretation of LTT plots generated from molecular clock age estimates for a nearly complete set of extant New Zealand vascular plant genera. With significant genus turnover, model simulations yield smooth exponential and linear semi-log LTT plots. Abrupt changes in extinction and immigration rates imposed in the scenarios caused only slight alterations of the curves. The vast majority of New Zealand vascular plant genera derive from trans-oceanic dispersal, and LTT plots generated from divergence dates and fossil data indicate consistently high turnover. Even major geological and climatic events leave minor signatures on LTT plots. Most notably, the maximum Oligocene Marine Transgression (27–22 Ma), when at least 85% of the current landmass was inundated, isn't clearly registered. By themselves, LTT plots shed little light on the biotic effects of climatic or geomorphic change in the remote past and need to be interpreted in the light of fossil and geological data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin and establishment of gender dimorphism has been postulated as a key element in the evolution of insular floras but has generally not been studied in an explicit phylogenetic framework. We tested the prior conclusion that the origin of gender dimorphism in the New Zealand species of Gaultheria Kalm ex L. is allochthonous by newly tracing the evolution of gender dimorphism on a phylogenetic tree of the Wintergreen Clade. We scored species for male sterility and breeding system type (cosexual, gynodioecious, or dioecious) based on the literature, and observations from the field and herbarium specimens. We traced the evolution of gender dimorphism, fruit evolution, and ancestral areas on the tree with parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods. Our analyses revealed that male sterility in New Zealand most likely emanated from a male-sterile fleshy red-fruited South American lineage, with reversals to cosexuality in two or three Australian lineages of the more inclusive Australasian Clade. The results support an allochthonous origin of gynodioecy in New Zealand Gaultheria and corroborate arrival of the ancestral ancestor through over-water dispersal, likely by birds. Although gender dimorphism could have arrived to New Zealand as a preadaptation to avoid inbreeding depression in an island setting, its correlation with fleshy fruit, unspecialised flowers, and woody habit across the genus suggests that factors other than the island setting per se are responsible for its maintenance in New Zealand. Although gender dimorphism in New Zealand has usually arisen autochthonously in dry-fruited genera, in Gaultheria the presence of gynodioecy in several dry-fruited species is best explained by its retention from fleshy-fruited ancestors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Notogrammitis (Polypodiaceae) is a medium-sized genus of ferns in New Zealand with 11 indigenous species. Lectotypes are chosen here for the basionyms Asplenium angustifolium Jacq., Grammitis humilis Hombr. and G. rigida Hombr., but no type material has been found for Grammitis australis var. alpina S.Jones or G. australis var. villosa Hook.f., and the types for these names remain undesignated. In Blechnum, a lectotype is designated for Lomaria colensoi Hook.f. and a second-step lectotypification made for Stegania fluviatilis R.Br. Lectotypes are being chosen where possible for all names at specific and subspecific rank, for which no holotype was designated by the original author, in order to fix the application of the name concerned. Justification for the choice is provided in each case. This article is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the plant names database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pyrrosia serpens is recorded here for the first time from the New Zealand Botanical Region, based on a single collection from Dayrell Island in the Kermadec Islands. This is a significant southern extension of range for the species, otherwise known in the Pacific from Fiji to Pitcairn and Henderson Islands. The identification of the Dayrell Island collection is based on evidence from both morphology (particularly soral and rhizome scale characters) and genetics. Morphological comparisons were made, in particular, with three related Australasian species. Phylogenetic analysis shows that the chloroplast DNA sequence of the Dayrell Island collection is very similar to that of P. serpens from the Cook Islands. However, previously reported sequences from samples of P. serpens from elsewhere are very different, reflecting a wider need for further taxonomic investigation of Pyrrosia subgenus Nipholobus. Pyrrosia serpens is one of ten fern species that, in New Zealand, are found only on the Kermadec Islands. In preparation for a revised treatment of Polypodiaceae for the electronic Flora of New Zealand, the taxonomic treatment of Pyrrosia is reviewed, a description of P. serpens from the Kermadec Islands provided, and its conservation status assessed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review summarises the ecology and biology of the North Island New Zealand endemic evergreen epiphytic shrub Pittosporum kirkii Hook.f. ex Kirk (Pittosporaceae). While mainly found as an epiphyte associated with other nest epiphytes such as Astelia spp., it also exhibits rupestral and terrestrial lifestyles. Pittosporum kirkii is distinguished from other members of New Zealand Pittosporum by distinctive thick, fleshy, coriaceous leaves, which may assist survival in water-stressed habitats. Water availability is speculated to be the most limiting factor across all of the habitats that P. kirkii occupies and when under water stress, the species utilises a desiccation postponement strategy. Pittosporum kirkii has a restricted distribution with strong habitat preferences restricting it to upper lowland and lower montane mainly old-growth forest ecosystems of the upper North Island. The highest probabilities of P. kirkii occurrence lie within mean annual temperature between 7.8°C and 15.6°C, mean annual rainfall between 1172 and 4432 mm, mean minimum solar radiation in the coldest month between 4.8 and 6.6 MJ/m2/day, and vapour pressure deficits between 0.15 and 0.39 kPa. Pittosporum kirkii is currently listed as at risk–declining and qualified as data-poor and partial decline because of a lack of autecological information. Palatability to introduced brushtail possums and forest clearance have been suggested as the main agents of decline. Due to significant morphological differences between mainland New Zealand and Great Barrier Island/Aotea populations, further study is warranted to determine distinctness. Including P. kirkii in restoration plans and conservation monitoring is recommended in areas where it naturally occurs as this species is recognised as an indicator of overall forest health. Further detailed research on P. kirkii would be invaluable to fill the current gap in knowledge on its ongoing threats, sexual expression, pollination and seed dispersal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pteridaceae is a large family of ferns in New Zealand with six genera, 15 indigenous species and 11 naturalised species. Eleven lectotypes are designated for basionyms relevant to New Zealand – Adiantum affine var. heterophyllum Colenso, A. cunninghamii Hook., A. pullum Colenso, A. trapeziforme G.Forst., A. trigonum Labill., Cheilanthes sieberi var. deltoidea J.B.Armstr., C. kirkii J.B.Armstr., Pteris affinis A.Rich., P. macilenta A.Rich., P. macilenta var. saxatilis Carse, and P. pendula Colenso. No type material has been found for the indigenous taxon Adiantum affine var. chathamicum Field, and the type for this name remains undesignated. Lectotypes are being chosen where possible for all names at specific and subspecific rank, for which no holotype was designated by the original author, in order to fix the application of the name concerned. Justification for the choice is provided in each case. This article is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the plant names database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Allopolyploids arise when two or more species hybridise to form an entirely new species with a duplicated genome. Although initially met with an array of potentially catastrophic challenges triggered by the combination of two diverged parental subgenomes within a single cell, countless allopolyploids worldwide demonstrate exceptional biological resilience by not only living under these unique circumstances, but thriving. The archipelago of Aotearoa New Zealand is home to an unexpectedly large number of allopolyploid species, both indigenous and introduced. Here, we review the prevalence and importance of these species from a local perspective. The benefits of allopolyploid species permeate multiple facets of life in New Zealand, from pastoral health and arable crop yield, to long-established viticulture and brewery practices, to the intrinsic nature of the land through the presence of diverse native allopolyploid flora. Consequently, the motivation behind the pursuit of New Zealand's allopolyploid research extends beyond improvement of the global knowledgebase and also aims to drive tangible economic and cultural impacts on the country and the lives of its people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pilosella officinarum is a serious adventive weed in New Zealand. It has also proven to be highly invasive in other countries. The areas infested are typically extensive rangelands for which expensive control measures would be hard to justify economically. However, it has been known for many years that species of this genus are particularly sensitive to the concentration of boron in the soil. The application of boron fertilisers is now a common practice to control P. officinarum infestations in the extensively grazed tussock grasslands in Central Otago. The farmers seek to exploit the differences in boron tolerance between P. officinarum and the exotic pasture species which farmers would like to establish in its place. However, there are large tracts of infested land for which the aim is the restoration of the native vegetation for water harvesting, aesthetic or conservation reasons. This study examines the effect of boron application (as ulexite) on the native species of the tussock grasslands flora. At the application rates recommended for P. officinarum control none of the native species was adversely affected by the added ulexite. Doubling the recommended application rates affected some but not all of the native species. The results suggest that the use of boron in this manner is unlikely to have any adverse effect on conservation values in tussock grassland, whether grazed or retired. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Crassula helmsii (Kirk) Cockayne (New Zealand Pygmyweed, Australian Swamp Stonecrop) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of the British Isles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history, and conservation.Crassula helmsii is an invasive aquatic macrophyte originating from Australia and New Zealand. The first naturalized population was recorded in Britain in 1956. All British specimens appear to represent a single lineage. DNA analysis indicates that British specimens originate from Australia.Crassula helmsii is capable of growing in a wide range of lentic freshwater and riparian habitats. It may grow as free floating, submerged, emergent or terrestrial forms. Morphology can differ markedly on the same stem.Flowers are produced, but with no known pollinators outside of its native range. Reproduction is thought to be predominantly by asexual methods outside Australia and New Zealand, through stem fragmentation and dispersal. Seed germination outside the native range appears to be very rare and poorly understood.Crassula helmsii has been and still is controlled by active management because of fears that its capacity to produce monocultures will lead to loss of biodiversity in the plant communities it invades. Evidence for species losses due to colonization by C. helmsii is rather anecdotal, although suppression of native biomass through competition has been reported. No consistently effective control procedures have been identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

John Buchanan was New Zealand's first locally-based official scientific illustrator, preparing illustrations for a wide range of scientific publications. He was also an experienced botanist, publishing papers on the local flora. From 1862 until his retirement in 1885 Buchanan worked as an assistant to James Hector, undertaking fieldwork and a variety of technical projects. From 1868 onwards he undertook the time-consuming task of preparing illustrations for the first eighteen volumes of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The New Zealand endemic and presumed extinct Stellaria elatinoides Hook.f. is shown to be conspecific with the Australian Stellaria multiflora Hook. subsp. multiflora and is treated as a heterotypic synonym. A suite of morphological characters unifies these two taxa, including an annual growth habit, glabrous stems and leaves, sessile leaves, monochasial inflorescences, usually apetalous flowers, short styles and stamens, broadly ellipsoid capsule with valve apices strongly revolute, and the seeds suborbicular and with uniformly-sized prominent tubercles. The biostatus of Stellaria multiflora subsp. multiflora is reviewed and it is treated as indigenous to Australia and New Zealand, and since it was last collected from New Zealand in 1921 its conservation status there is confirmed as extinct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A colonisation history for 411 extant genera and 477 lineages of the vascular flora of New Zealand was constructed using the plastid rbcL gene. Molecular clock crown ages suggest that the Eocene-Oligocene transition extinction at 33.9 Ma was critical to the development of the extant flora as few lineages, mostly ferns and conifers, predate this event. Based on crown dates, almost all extant angiosperm lineages have established after the Eocene-Oligocene transition extinction. The Oligocene marine transgression had little discernible impact on the formation of the extant flora, as at the culmination of the inundation (22.0–25.0 Ma) fifty extant lineages of vascular plant were present and another eight lineages originated during this time. The majority of extant species (89%) originated after the end of the Miocene Thermal Optimum at about 15.0 Ma. Nearly 50% of the extant species have evolved during mountain uplift and glaciation of the late Pliocene-Pleistocene (0–4.99 Ma). Therefore, despite a residual contribution from the Eocene, Oligocene and early to mid Miocene periods, the New Zealand vascular flora essentially originated in the late Miocene and after. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blechnaceae is a medium-sized family of ferns in New Zealand with one genus, 23 indigenous species, two naturalised species and two nothospecies. A new combination, Blechnum × digenum (Parris) Brownsey & Perrie, is made for the hybrid between Blechnum molle (Parris) Christenh. and B. parrisiae Christenh. 11 lectotypes are chosen for basionyms relevant to New Zealand – Lomaria dura T. Moore, L. filiformis A. Cunn., L. membranacea Colenso ex Hook., L. nigra Colenso, L. oligoneuron Colenso, L. parvifolia Colenso, L. paucijuga Colenso, L. pumila Raoul, L. rotundifolia Colenso, Parablechnum procerum var. acuminatum C. Presl, and Stegania procera var. stipulosa A. Rich. No type material has been found for Blechnum capense var. auriculatum Domin, B. capense var. contractum Domin, B. capense var. hookerianum Domin, Lomaria paleacea Potts, or Lomaria pygmaea Colenso, and the types for these names remain undesignated. Lectotypes are being chosen where possible for all names at specific and subspecific rank, for which no holotype was designated by the original author, in order to fix the application of the name concerned. Justification for the choice is provided in each case. This article is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the plant names database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABC model, Clianthus, Eucalyptus, flowering, gibberellin, growth habit, heteroblasty, homoblasty, Metrosideros, microRNA, Pachycladon, phase change, Phormium, photoperiod, reproduction, Sophora. [Extracted from the article]

Brachyscome simplicifolia J.B.Armstr. was treated as incertae sedis by H.H. Allan in the Flora of New Zealand, Volume 1, published in 1961. At that time, H.H. Allan, along with the earlier flora writers T. Kirk and T.F. Cheeseman, had not seen herbarium material referable to that name. An authentic herbarium specimen from the Armstrong Herbarium, formally part of the Christchurch Botanic Gardens Herbarium (CHBG) but now housed at the Allan Herbarium (CHR), has been located and is designated as lectotype for B. simplicifolia. Based on this lectotypification, B. simplicifolia is conspecific with Abrotanella linearis Berggr., and being the more recently published name is treated as a heterotypic synonym. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Dictyota (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae), formerly identified as D. intermedia, is described from Manawatāwhi/Three Kings Islands. Morphological and anatomical features, in addition to molecular sequence data, of specimens collected from Manawatāwhi and Rangitāhua/Kermadec Islands were compared and enabled us to confirm that D. intermedia is present at Rangitāhua and differs from specimens collected at Manawatāwhi. Dictyota korowai sp. nov. is endemic to Manawatāwhi and possesses distinctive morphological features including the development of tongue-like proliferations on both surfaces of the blades and a thickened midrib which extends from the base into the lower portion of the axes. The presence of D. sandvicensis on Rangitāhua is reported for the first time, a new record for the New Zealand macroalgal flora. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the epidemiology of infectious diseases in a host population is a major challenge in forestry. Radiata pine plantations in New Zealand are impacted by a foliar disease, red needle cast (RNC), caused by Phytophthora pluvialis. This pathogen is dispersed by water splash with polycyclic infection affecting the lower part of the tree canopy. In this study, we extended an SI (Susceptible-Infectious) model presented for RNC to analyse the key epidemiological drivers. We conducted two experiments to empirically fit the extended model: a detached-needle assay and an in vivo inoculation. We used the detached-needle assay data to compare resistant and susceptible genotypes, and the in vivo inoculation data was used to inform sustained infection of the whole plant. We also compared isolations and real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) to assess P. pluvialis infection. The primary infection rate and the incubation time were similar for susceptible and resistant genotypes. The pathogen death rate was 2.5 times higher for resistant than susceptible genotypes. Further, external proliferation of mycelium and sporangia were only observed on 28% of the resistant ramets compared to 90% of the susceptible ones. Detection methods were the single most important factor influencing parameter estimates of the model, giving qualitatively different epidemic outputs. In the early stages of infection, qPCR proved to be more efficient than isolations but the reverse was true at later points in time. Isolations were not influenced by the presence of lesions in the needles, while 19% of lesioned needle maximized qPCR detection. A primary infection peak identified via qPCR occurred at 4 days after inoculation (dai) with a secondary peak observed 22 dai. Our results have important implications to the management of RNC, by highlighting the main differences in the response of susceptible and resistant genotypes, and comparing the most common assessment methods to detect RNC epidemics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybridization is common in many ferns and has been a significant factor in fern evolution and speciation. However, hybrids are rare between the approximately 30 species of Dicksonia tree ferns world-wide, and none are well documented. In this study we examine the relationship of a newly-discovered Dicksonia tree fern from Whirinaki, New Zealand, which does not fit the current taxonomy of the three species currently recognized in New Zealand. Our microsatellite genotyping and ddRAD-seq data indicate these plants are F1 hybrids that have formed multiple times between D. fibrosa and D. lanata subsp. lanata. The Whirinaki plants have intermediate morphology between D. fibrosa and D. lanata subsp. lanata and their malformed spores are consistent with a hybrid origin. The Whirinaki plants–Dicksonia fibrosa × D. lanata subsp. lanata–are an example of hybridization between distantly related fern lineages, with the two parent species estimated to have diverged 55–25 mya. Our chloroplast sequencing indicates asymmetric chloroplast inheritance in the Whirinaki morphology with D. lanata subsp. lanata always contributing the chloroplast genome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several hundred (396) compounds from New Zealand flora with medicinal properties were analyzed for their physicochemical properties. It was found that approximately 10 % fulfilled all the requirements to be considered to be lead‐like, over half of the compounds were deemed to be in the drug‐like space and ≈75 % were in the known drug space. These results indicate the presence of a significant proportion of compounds that are of particular interest to pursue as potential lead compounds or therapeutics. Additionally, compound classes were analyzed separately—most carbonyl‐containing compounds (aldehydes, ketones, esters and lactones), along with phenols were the most lead‐like compounds, which also displayed very good proportions in the drug‐like and known drug space. The information presented herein can be harnessed and utilized in future work, through focussing on the compounds and compound classes that exhibit high‐levels of lead‐likeness for further development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease (WCLWD) causes heavy losses in the coconut cultivations of southern Sri Lanka. The in-house developed and validated indirect ELISA was based on specific polyclonal antibodies raised in female New Zealand White rabbits, against partially purified WCLWD associated phytoplasma. This ELISA has the potential to distinguish secA PCR confirmed, WCLWD associated phytoplasma positive palms from phytoplasma free palms at high accuracy (93%) and sensitivity (92.7%), but with marginal specificity (79%). The calculated ELISA cross reactivity index (CRI) values were low for sugarcane white leaf (7%) and sugarcane grassy shoot (8%) infected leaves, but with marked highCRIfor both Bermuda grass white leaf (69%) and areca nut yellow leaf (70%) infected leaves. SecA gene based phylogenetic relationships of the WCLWD associated phytoplasma with these other locally prevalent phytoplasma strains elucidated this immunological cross reactivity, which was further reiterated by virtual restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Based on scanning electron microscopy, this study provides additional visual evidence, for the presence of phytoplasmas in WCLWD infected tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unpublishedGlossarium Botanicum: Novae Zelandiae, begun in 1838 by William Colenso, is the oldest extant manuscript by a resident New Zealand botanist. It was begun at a time when theFlorae Insularum Novae Zelandiae Precursorof Allan Cunningham was in the process of being published, and when Cunningham and Colenso were botanising together in Northland. This article discusses the relationships between Colenso’s and Cunningham’s works. It is argued that Colenso modelled the manuscript on a notebook which Cunningham had with him in 1838, adding more information in 1841 when he obtained a copy of Cunningham’s paper. Material from Colenso’s East Coast journey was added either in 1842 or possibly later. An appendix identifies previously unrecorded Colenso localities from theGlossarium. A second appendix identifies approximate dates for the various published papers resulting from his East Coast journey. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Fossil leaves from lowermost Eocene strata in the Otaio River, South Island, New Zealand, include the oldest records of the extant monocot genus, Ripogonum (Ripogonaceae). The Ripogonum fossil is represented by an incomplete leaf with preserved cuticle and is similar to, but different from, all extant and fossil Ripogonaceae, including recently described Eocene Tasmanian and South American taxa and is here described as a new species, R. palaeozeylandiae Conran, E.M.Kenn. & Bannister. This supports the theory that Ripogonaceae have a long and evolutionary history across the southern hemisphere, with the Otaio fossil flora indicating a palaeoclimate similar to the mesothermal broadleaf forests that Ripogonum still occupies today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thomas Cheeseman (1845–1923) was one of New Zealand’s most important botanists and museum administrators in the country’s late colonial period (c. 1875–1914). He had a lengthier career as a working scientist than almost all his peers; served longer than any other of the great New Zealand museum directors of this era; and also built up extensive lines of communication with colleagues both locally and overseas. In contrast, however, to New Zealand’s other great scientific leaders of the day, Cheeseman has not enjoyed the same level of posthumous attention and is yet to be the subject of an extended critical study. This short communication takes a step towards remedying this deficiency by reviewing Cheeseman’s more notable achievements and offering explanations for his remarkable professional longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thomas Kirk (1828–1898) was one of New Zealand’s leading botanists. The completed sections of his final work,The Students’ Flora of New Zealand and the Outlying Islands, were published posthumously in 1899. This short communication outlines factors surrounding its initiation, and argues that Kirk deserves more recognition for describing New Zealand’s indigenous plants and weeds in one sequence. The preparation of theStudents’ Floraalso triggered arrangements to bring to New Zealand for the first time, specimens, plates and a manuscript resulting from Banks’ and Solander’s collections on Cook’s first voyage in 1769. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dennstaedtiaceae is a medium-sized family of ferns in New Zealand with 11 indigenous and two naturalised species. Lindsaeaceae is a small family with just three native species and one naturalised. Three lectotypes are chosen for basionyms relevant to New Zealand:Dicksonia davallioidesR.Br.,Lindsaea trilobataColenso andPteris vespertilionisLabill. Justification for the choice is provided in each case. This short communication is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the plant names database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Allan Cunningham's Florae Insularum Novae Zelandiae Precursor, published serially from 1837 to 1839, is an important source of taxonomic names in New Zealand botany. It is pointed out that the printed text contains a large number of errors, which can be corrected using an autograph manuscript that is still extant. In particular, the spelling of the name of the fern genus Loxsoma nom. et orth. cons. as Loxoma is discussed. It is shown that this is an orthographic error, soon corrected by its author, who is not Cunningham, as generally supposed, but W.J. Hooker, as actually stated in the published text. The manuscript confirms the attributions Loxsoma R.Br. ex Hook. and L. cunninghamii R.Br. ex Hook. A number of typographic errors are also discussed, the only significant one having resulted in the mistaken attribution of the family Griseliniaceae to Cunningham. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fourteen new species are described from New Zealand, Cortinarius amblyonis, Cortinarius chrysoconius, Cortinarius cremeorufus, Cortinarius cypripedii, Cortinarius dulcamarus, Cortinarius entheosus, Cortinarius lachanus, Cortinarius mycenarum, Cortinarius mysoides, Cortinarius psilomorphus, Cortinarius trichocarpus, Cortinarius urbiculus, Cortinarius vitreofulvus and Cortinarius xenosmatoides. Also two new sections, Cortinarius sect. Cremeolinae and Cortinarius sect. Cycnei, are proposed, and a new form of Cortinarius lubricanescens is described. The Patagonian taxon Cortinarius rapaceus var. luridus is raised to species rank under the replacement name Cortinarius austrorapaceus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species, Carex applanata, is described from the Old Woman, Old Man, Umbrella, Garvie, Pisa and The Remarkables Mountains in southern Central Otago and northern Southland. This low-growing sedge is distinctive in the congested spikes on culms shorter than the leaves, female flowers above male, and flattened habit. It occupies a habitat type rare in the region, but within suitable sites the population can number in the hundreds of plants. Carex applanata is considered to have a conservation status of 'At Risk/ Naturally Uncommon'--qualified RR ('Range Restricted') and DP ('Data Poor') using the New Zealand Threat Classification System because the species is naturally confined in its habitat preferences, but as a newly described alpine species it is poorly known. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three lectotypes are chosen for basionyms relevant to New Zealand representatives of the fern family Thelypteridaceae: Aspidium novaezeelandiae Ettingsh., Nephrodium propinquum R.Br. and Polypodium pennigerum var. giganteum Colenso. This article is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the plant names database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lectotypes are designated for 23 basionyms relevant to New Zealand representatives of the fern family Hymenophyllaceae: Hymenophyllum alpinum Colenso, H. antarcticum C.Presl, H. cristulatum Rosenst., H. frankliniae Colenso, H. imbricatum Colenso, H. lyallii Hook.f., H. megalocarpum Colenso, H. oligocarpum Colenso, H. polychilum Colenso, H. pusillum Colenso, H. pygmaeum Colenso, H. rufescens Kirk, H. scabrum var. hirtum Colenso, H. spathulatum Colenso, H. truncatum Colenso, H. zeelandicum Bosch, Leptocionium sororium C.Presl, Sphaerocionium glanduliferum C.Presl, Trichomanes aureum Bosch, T. leptophyllum A.Cunn., T. multifidum G.Forst., T. polyodon Colenso, and T. venustula Colenso. Original material has also been identified for H. pyriforme Bosch but no lectotype designated. No type material has been found for Hymenophyllum aucklandicum Bosch. This article is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the plant names database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many island plants are characterized by unique morphology. For example, the high branching angles and small leaves of divaricate plants are a common feature of the New Zealand flora. The divaricate growth form may be an adaptation to deter browsing by extinct avian herbivores (moa); alternatively aspects of the insular climate may be responsible. However, our understanding of the selective pressures responsible for the high branching angles and small leaves of divaricate plants is incomplete. Here, I tested for differences in traits associated with the divaricate growth form between plants from Chatham Island and the New Zealand mainland. Moa never reached the Chatham Islands and its flora is derived from plants on mainland New Zealand. Therefore, I predicted Chatham Island plants to have lost morphological adaptations that may have deterred moa herbivory. Traits were quantified on 316 individuals in the field, allowing for 12 island-mainland taxonomic comparisons. Chatham Island plants consistently produced smaller branching angles, larger leaves, shorter internodes and larger stems than related mainland plants. Results are therefore consistent with the hypothesis that selection for small leaves and high angled branching may be relaxed on the Chatham Islands due to an absence of moa. Smaller branching angles and larger leaves may offer a competitive advantage to Chatham Island plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Senecio australisis confirmed as present in New Zealand. A full description based on New Zealand specimens is also provided.Senecio australiswas discovered in New Zealand in 1994. Prior to this date, the absence of supporting specimens had caused this species to be rejected from the New Zealand flora and treated as endemic to Norfolk Island. In this paper, the biostatus ofS. australisin New Zealand is reviewed and it is concluded that the species is most likely a recent natural, bird-assisted arrival from Norfolk Island. The most probable seed vector of theSeneciois the grey ternlet (Procelsterna cerulea albivitta), a small seabird common on Norfolk and Kermadec Islands, which periodically visits northern New Zealand waters. The conservation status ofS. australisis briefly discussed and the current status of ‘Non-Resident Native/Vagrant’ awarded to the species by the New Zealand Threatened Indigenous Vascular Plant panel is considered to be still appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]