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During much of the twentieth century, Jersey City, New Jersey was the leading center of chromate production in the United States. Chromate production produced huge volumes of chromium ore-processing residue containing many parts per million of hexavalent chromium. Starting in the 1990s, we undertook a series of studies to identify exposed populations, sources and pathways of exposure and the effectiveness of remediation activities in Jersey City. These studies revealed the effectiveness and success of the remediation activities. The sequence of studies presented here, builds on the lessons learned from each preceding study and illustrates how these studies advanced the field of exposure science in important ways, including the use of household dust as a measure of exposure to contaminants originating in the outdoor environment; development of effective and reproducible dust sampling; use of household dust to track temporal changes in exposure; understanding of the spatial relationship between sources of passive outdoor particulate emissions and residential exposure; use of focused biomonitoring to assess exposure under conditions of large inter-individual variability; and utility of linking environmental monitoring and biomonitoring. For chromium, the studies have demonstrated the use of Cr+6-specific analytical methods for measuring low concentrations of Cr+6 in household dust and understanding of the occurrence of Cr+6 in the background residential environment. We strongly recommend that environmental and public health agencies evaluate sites for their potential for off-site exposure and apply these tools in cases with significant potential as appropriate. This approach is especially important when contamination is widespread and/or a large population is potentially exposed. In such cases, these tools should be used to identify, characterize and then reduce the exposure to the off-site as well as on-site population. Importantly, these tools can be used in a demonstrable and quantifiable manner to provide both clarity and closure to concerned stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Air pollution has been a topic of intense concern and study for hundreds of years. During the second half of the 20th century, the United States implemented regulations and controls to reduce the levels of criteria air pollutants and achieve the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for the protection of human health, while concurrently reducing the levels of toxic air pollutants. Objective: In this commentary we trace the changes in air pollution in New Jersey as a case study, demonstrating the impact of local, state, and federal strategies to control emissions of pollutants and pollutant precursors from the 1950s until today. Discussion: The original NAAQS (1970-1995) have been achieved, and significant progress has been made to achieve revised standards for ozone and particulate matter (PM) < 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5) in New Jersey, which in the past was considered a highly polluted industrial state. Conclusions: Assuming no reversals on current regulations because of some major event or energy infrastructure disruption, outdoor air pollution reductions will continue to address health risks among specific segments of the general population affected by ozone/PM and pollution caused by neighborhood, local, and regional point and mobile sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessment of the health risks resulting from exposure to ambient polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) is limited by a lack of environmental exposure data among the general population. This study characterized personal exposure and ambient concentrations of PAH in the Village of Waterfront South (WFS), an urban community with many mixed sources of air toxics in Camden, New Jersey, and CopeWood/Davis Streets (CDS), an urban reference area located ∼1 mile east of WFS. A total of 54 and 53 participants were recruited from non-smoking households in WFS and CDS, respectively. In all, 24-h personal and ambient air samples were collected simultaneously in both areas on weekdays and weekends during summer and winter. The ambient PAH concentrations in WFS were either significantly higher than or comparable to those in CDS, indicating the significant impact of local sources on PAH pollution in WFS. Analysis of diagnostic ratios and correlation suggested that diesel truck traffic, municipal waste combustion and industrial combustion were the major sources in WFS. In such an area, ambient air pollution contributed significantly to personal PAH exposure, explaining 44-96% of variability in personal concentrations. This study provides valuable data for examining the impact of local ambient PAH pollution on personal exposure and therefore potential health risks associated with environmental PAH pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Interactions between acute exposures to environmental chemical contaminants and psychological stress may be important in situations where they are likely to co-occur, ranging in intensity from daily urban living to participation in war. Modification of symptomatic responses by stress may play a role in medically unexplained symptoms attributed to low-level chemical exposures. OBJECTIVES: We hypothesized that the combination of exposure to diesel exhaust (DE) and acute psychological stress would cause sickness responses in healthy volunteers. Moreover, these responses would be greater in individuals with self-reported prior chemical odor intolerance. METHODS: One hundred adult subjects underwent 1-hr exposures to diluted DE and clean air control. Half of the subjects performed a public-speaking stressor task during the exposures. Subjects completed questionnaires to determine their Chemical Odor Intolerance Index score. Plasma cortisol, end-tidal carbon dioxide, and the severity of 35 symptoms were measured at time points before and after the exposures. RESULTS: Subjects exposed to DE demonstrated small but statistically significant increases in severity for several symptom categories, including sickness response and upper respiratory, central nervous system, and total symptoms. The psychological stressor did not increase symptom severity independently or via interaction with DE. Subjects with prior self-reported chemical intolerance had more severe sickness response symptoms from DE. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that exposure to DE can cause acute sickness response symptoms and that these symptoms are also associated with increased levels of self-reported chemical intolerance. The results did not confirm our hypothesis that an acute stressor would increase sickness response symptom severity during the exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtered vacuum cleaners are recommended by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development for cleaning lead-contaminated house dust. We performed a randomized field study to determine whether a conventional (non-HEPA) vacuum cleaner could achieve cleaning results comparable with those of a HEPA vacuum cleaner. We compared the lead loading reductions of these two vacuum cleaners in a total of 127 New Jersey homes of lead-exposed children. We used wet towelettes and a vacuum sampler to collect lead dust from carpets and upholstery before and after vacuum cleaning. The vacuum sampling data showed that the HEPA and non-HEPA vacuum cleaners resulted in 54.7% (p = 0.006) and 36.4% (p = 0.020) reductions in lead loading, respectively, when used on soiled carpets, although the overall difference in lead loading reduction between the two vacuum cleaners was not statistically significant (p = 0.293.). The wipe sampling data did not show any significant lead loading reduction for either of the vacuum cleaners, suggesting that both vacuum cleaners fail to clean the surfaces of carpet effectively, considering that wipe sampling media simulate surface contact. On upholstery, the wipe sampling data showed a significant reduction in lead loading for the non-HEPA vacuum cleaner (22.2%, p = 0.047). Even with the significant reduction, the postcleaning lead loadings on upholstery were similar to those on carpets. The similar lead loading results for carpets and upholstery indicate that soiled upholstery may be as important a source of childhood lead exposure as carpets. Key words: carpet, cleaning, HEPA, HUD, lead, upholstery, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, vacuum. Environ Health Perspect 110:1233-1237 (2002). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluates the home lead dust reduction techniques in New Jersey. Production of larger dust reduction on hard floors by non-high efficiency particulate air filter (HEPA) vacuums; Percentage of window sill dust reductions due to the HEPA vacuum; Level of window troughs dust reduction caused by the non-trisodium phosphate.

Investigates the efficacy of breath ammonia depletion methods in acid aerosol exposure-health response studies in Piscataway, New Jersey. Use of a nitrogen oxides analyzer; Reduction of exhaled ammonia; Need for repeated oral rinsing to maintain low-breath ammonia conditions.

To provide a scientific basis for the selection and use of continuous monitors for exposure and/or health effects studies, and for compliance and episode measurements at strategic locations in the State of New Jersey, we evaluated the performance of seven continuous fine particulate matter (PM2.5) monitors in the present study. Gravimetric samplers, as reference methods, were collocated with real-time instruments in both laboratory and field tests. The results of intercomparison of real-time monitors showed that the two nephelometers used in this study correlated extremely well (r² ~0.97), and two tapered element oscillating monitors (TEOM 1400 and TEOM filter dynamics measurement system [FDMS]) correlated well (r² > 0.85), whereas two beta gauges displayed a weaker correlation (r² < 0.6). During a summertime controlled (laboratory) evaluation, the measurements made with the gravimetric method correlated well with the 24-hr integrated measurements made with the real-time monitors. The SidePak nephelometer overestimated the particle concentration by a factor of approximately 3.4 compared with the gravimetric method. During a summertime field evaluation, the TEOM FDMS monitor reported approximately 30% higher mass concentration than the Federal Reference Method (FRM); and the difference could be explained by the loss of semi-volatile materials from the FRM sampler. Results also demonstrated that 24-hr average PM2.5 mass concentrations measured by beta gauges and TEOM (50 °C) in winter correlated well with the integrated gravimetric method. Seasonal differences were observed in the performance of the TEOM (50 °C) monitor in measuring the particle mass attributed to the higher semi-volatile material loss in the winter weather. In applying the real-time particulate matter monitoring data into Air Quality Index (AQI) reporting, the Conroy method and the 8-hr end-hour average method were both found to be suitable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: To address disparities in health risks associated with ambient air pollution for racial/ethnic minority groups, this study characterized personal and ambient concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in a suspected hot spot of air pollution – the Village of Waterfront South (WFS), and an urban reference community – the Copewood/Davis Streets (CDS) neighborhood in Camden, New Jersey. Both are minority-dominant, impoverished communities. We collected 24-h integrated personal air samples from 54 WFS residents and 53 CDS residents, with one sample on a weekday and one on a weekend day during the summer and winter seasons of 2004–2006. Ambient air samples from the center of each community were also collected simultaneously during personal air sampling. Toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (TEX) presented higher (p < 0.05) ambient levels in WFS than in CDS, particularly during weekdays. A stronger association between personal and ambient concentrations of MTBE and TEX was found in WFS than in CDS. Fourteen to forty-two percent of the variation in personal MTBE, hexane, benzene, and TEX was explained by local outdoor air pollution. These observations indicated that local sources impacted the community air pollution and personal exposure in WFS. The estimated cancer risks resulting from two locally emitted VOCs, benzene and ethylbenzene, and non-cancer neurological and respiratory effects resulting from hexane, benzene, toluene, and xylenes exceeded the US EPA risk benchmarks in both communities. These findings emphasized the need to address disparity in health risks associated with ambient air pollution for the socio-economically disadvantaged groups. This study also demonstrated that air pollution hot spots similar to WFS can provide robust setting to investigate health effects of ambient air pollution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In contrast to Cr+3, Cr+6 is carcinogenic and allergenic. Although Cr+6 can occur naturally, it is thought that most soil Cr+6 is anthropogenic, however, the extent of Cr+6 in the background environment is unknown. Cr+6-containing chromite ore processing residue (COPR) from chromate manufacture was deposited in numerous locations in Jersey City (JC), New Jersey. In the 1990''s, significantly elevated concentrations of total Cr (Cr+6 +Cr+3) were found in house dust near COPR sites. We undertook a follow-up study to determine ongoing COPR exposure. We compared Cr+6 in house dust in JC to selected background communities with no known sources of Cr+6. Samples were collected from living areas, basements and window wells. Cr+6 was detected in dust from all JC and background houses. In the JC homes, the mean (±SD) Cr+6 concentration for all samples was 3.9±7.0μg/g (range: non-detect–90.4μg/g), and the mean Cr+6 loading was 5.8±15.7μg/m2 (range: non-detect–196.4μg/m2). In background homes, the mean Cr+6 concentrations of all samples was 4.6±7.8μg/g, (range, 0.05–56.6μg/g). The mean loading was 10.0±27.9μg/m2 (range, 0.22–169.3μg/m2). There was no significant difference between Cr+6 dust concentrations in Jersey City and background locations. Stratification by sample location within houses and sampling method gave similar results. Samples exceeding 20μg/g were obtained only from single wood surfaces in different homes. Lower concentrations in window well samples suggests transport from outside is not the major source of indoor Cr+6. Landscaping and groundcover may influence indoor Cr+6. There appears to be a widespread low level background of Cr+6 that is not elevated in Jersey City homes despite its historic COPR contamination. It is possible that house dust, in general, is a source of Cr+6 exposure with potential implications for persistence of chromium allergic contact dermatitis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study presents the Individual Based Exposure Modeling (IBEM) application of MENTOR (Modeling ENvironment for TOtal Risk studies) in a hot spot area, where there are concentrated local sources on the scale of tens to hundreds of meters, and an urban reference area in Camden, NJ, to characterize the ambient concentrations and personal exposures to benzene and toluene from local ambient sources. The emission-based ambient concentrations in the two neighborhoods were first estimated through atmospheric dispersion modeling. Subsequently, the calculated and measured ambient concentrations of benzene and toluene were separately combined with the time-activity diaries completed by the subjects as inputs to MENTOR/IBEM for estimating personal exposures resulting from ambient sources. The modeling results were then compared with the actual personal measurements collected from over 100 individuals in the field study to identify the gaps in modeling personal exposures in a hot spot. The modeled ambient concentrations of benzene and toluene were generally in agreement with the neighborhood measurements within a factor of 2, but were underestimated at the high-end percentiles. The major local contributors to the benzene ambient levels are from mobile sources, whereas mobile and stationary (point and area) sources contribute to the toluene ambient levels in the study area. This finding can be used as guidance for developing better air toxic emission inventories for characterizing, through modeling, the ambient concentrations of air toxics in the study area. The estimated percentage contributions of personal exposures from ambient sources were generally higher in the hot spot area than the urban reference area in Camden, NJ, for benzene and toluene. This finding demonstrates the hot spot characteristics of stronger local ambient source impacts on personal exposures. Non-ambient sources were also found as significant contributors to personal exposures to benzene and toluene for the population studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although all chromite ore processing residue (COPR) sites near residential neighborhoods in Jersey City, New Jersey have undergone remediation, recent studies found widespread, but low levels of hexavalent chromium (Cr(+6)) in house dust both in Jersey City and in communities with no known sources of Cr(+6). This study was designed as a follow-up to determine whether there is an association between current Cr(+6) levels in house dust and urinary chromium concentrations in young children. Dust samples (N=369) were collected from 123 homes. The median Cr(+6) concentration was 3.3 μg/g (mean±SD 5.2±7.5) and the median Cr(+6) loading was 1.1 μg/m(2) (1.9±3.1). These levels were not elevated compared with previously reported levels in background communities (median concentration=3.5 μg/g; median loading=2.8 μg/m(2)). Urinary chromium concentrations were measured in spot urine samples collected from 150 children, ages 3 months to 6 years. The median uncorrected urinary chromium concentration was 0.19 μg/l (0.22±0.16). Current urinary chromium concentrations were significantly lower than those previously reported before and during remediation (t-test; P<0.001). Urinary chromium concentrations were not significantly higher in homes with high (75th or 90th percentile) Cr(+6) dust levels (concentration or loading) compared with other homes. Multiple linear regression was used to examine the relationship between Cr(+6) levels (concentration and loading) in house dust and urinary chromium concentrations (uncorrected and specific gravity corrected). Contrary to pre-remediation studies, we did not find a positive association between Cr(+6) levels in house dust and urinary chromium concentrations. The findings indicate that current Cr(+6) levels in house dust are not positively associated with children's chromium exposure as measured by urinary chromium, and the children's exposure to Cr(+6) in house dust is below the level that could be identified by urine sampling.

The objective of this study was to estimate the contribution of a facility that processes steel production slag into raw material for cement production to local outdoor particle deposition in Camden, NJ. A dry deposition sampler that can house four 37-mm quartz fiber filters was developed and used for the collection of atmospheric particle deposits. Two rounds of particle collection (3-4 weeks each) were conducted in 8-11 locations 200-800 m downwind of the facility. Background samples were concurrently collected in a remote area located -2 km upwind from the facility. In addition, duplicate surface wipe samples were collected side-by-side from each of the 13 locations within the same sampling area during the first deposition sampling period. One composite source material sample was also collected from a pile stored in the facility. Both the bulk of the source material and the < 38 microm fraction subsample were analyzed to obtain the elemental source profile. The particle deposition flux in the study area was higher (24-83 mg/m2 x day) than at the background sites (13-17 mg/m2day). The concentration of Ca, a major element in the cement source production material, was found to exponentially decrease with increasing downwind distance from the facility (P < 0.05). The ratio of Ca/Al, an indicator of Ca enrichment due to anthropogenic sources in a given sample, showed a similar trend. These observations suggest a significant contribution of the facility to the local particle deposition. The contribution of the facility to outdoor deposited particle mass was further estimated by three independent models using the measurements obtained from this study. The estimated contributions to particle deposition in the study area were 1.8-7.4% from the regression analysis of the Ca concentration in particle deposition samples against the distance from the facility, 0-11% from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) source-receptor model, and 7.6-13% from the EPA Industrial Source Complex Short Term (ISCST3) dispersion model using the particle-size-adjusted permit-based emissions estimates.

Exposure and dose estimation are essential to understanding the etiology of environmentally linked childhood diseases. The behavior of resuspended particulate matter (PM) suggests that stationary measurements may underestimate household exposures in young children (ages 6-36 months). Because of the size and weight of the sampling equipment, use of personal samplers in this age group is either difficult or impossible. The Pretoddler Inhalable Particulate Environmental Robotic (PIPER Mk IV) sampler has been developed to provide a surrogate method to ascertain personal exposures to PM for this age group. As part of a study of childhood asthma, 55 homes in central New Jersey were tested. Simultaneous sampling for inhalable PM using stationary (110 cm height) and PIPER mobile sampler were carried out. In homes with bare floors (N=21), the absolute difference was 3.9 μg/m3 (SE=3.01; p=0.217) and relative difference (PIPER/Stationary) was 1.12 (linearized SE=0.11). On carpets (N=34), the absolute difference was 54.1 μg/m3 (SE=13.50; p=0.0003), and the relative difference was 2.30 (linearized SE=0.34). The results confirm the importance of understanding the personal dust cloud caused by children's activity in a room, particularly when rugs or carpets are present.

Environmental remediation decisions are driven by the need to minimize human health and ecological risks posed by environmental releases. The Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Sites enunciates the principles of exposure and risk assessment that are to be used for reaching remediation decisions for sites under Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). Experience with remediation management under CERCLA has led to recognition of some crucial infirmities in the processes for managing remediation: cleanup management policies are ad hoc in character, mandates and practices are strongly conservative, and contaminant risk management occurs in an artificially narrow context. The purpose of this case study is to show how a policy of risk-based decision-making was used to avoid customary pitfalls in site remediation. This case study describes the risk-based decision-making process in a remedial action program at a former manufactured gas plant site that successfully achieved timely and effective cleanup. The remediation process operated outside the confines of the CERCLA process under an administrative consent order between the utility and the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. A residential use end state was negotiated as part of this agreement. The attendant uncertainties, complications, and unexpected contingencies were overcome by using the likely exposures associated with the desired end state to structure all of the remediation management decisions and by collecting site-specific information from the very outset to obtain a detailed and realistic characterization of human health risks that needed to be mitigated. The lessons from this case study are generalizable to more complicated remediation cases, when supported by correspondingly sophisticated technical approaches.

The Children's Post-Pesticide Application Exposure Study (CPPAES) was conducted to look at the distribution of chlorpyrifos within a home environment for 2 weeks after a routine professional crack-and-crevice application and to determine the amount of the chlorpyrifos that is absorbed by a child living within the home. Ten residential homes with a 2- to 5-year-old child in each were selected for study, and the homes were treated with chlorpyrifos. Pesticide measurements were made from the indoor air, indoor surfaces, and plush toys. In addition, periodic morning urine samples were collected from each of the children throughout the 2-week period. We analyzed the urine samples for 3,5,6-trichloropyridinol, the primary urinary metabolite of chlorpyrifos, and used the results to estimate the children's absorbed dose. Average chlorpyrifos levels in the indoor air and surfaces were 26 (pretreatment)/120 (posttreatment) ng/m3 and 0.48 (pretreatment)/2.8 (posttreatment) ng/cm2, respectively, reaching peak levels between days 0 and 2; subsequently, concentrations decreased throughout the 2-week period. Chlorpyrifos in/on the plush toys ranged from 7.3 to 1,949 ng/toy postapplication, with concentrations increasing throughout the 2-week period, demonstrating a cumulative adsorption/absorption process indoors. The daily amount of chlorpyrifos estimated to be absorbed by the CPPAES children postapplication ranged from 0.04 to 4.8 microg/kg/day. During the 2 weeks after the crack-and-crevice application, there was no significant increase in the amount of chlorpyrifos absorbed by the CPPAES children.