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We examined intraspecific variation in ionoregulatory physiology within euryhaline killifish, Fundulus heteroclitus, to understand possible mechanisms of freshwater adaptation in fish. Pronounced differences in freshwater tolerance existed between northern (2% mortality) and southern (19% mortality) killifish populations after transfer from brackish water (10 g l(-1)) to freshwater. Differences in Na(+) regulation between each population might partially account for this difference in tolerance, because plasma Na(+) was decreased for a longer period in southern survivors than in northerns. Furthermore, northern fish increased Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase mRNA expression and activity in their gills to a greater extent 1-14 days after transfer than did southerns, which preceded higher whole-body net flux and unidirectional influx of Na(+) at 14 days. All observed differences in Na(+) regulation were small, however, and probably cannot account for the large differences in mortality. Differences in Cl(-) regulation also existed between populations. Plasma Cl(-) was maintained in northern fish, but in southerns, plasma Cl(-) decreased rapidly and remained low for the duration of the experiment. Correspondingly, net Cl(-) loss from southern fish remained high after transfer, while northerns eliminated Cl(-) loss altogether. Elevated Cl(-) loss from southern fish in freshwater was possibly due to a persistence of seawater gill morphology, as paracellular permeability (indicated by extrarenal clearance rate of PEG-4000) and apical crypt density in the gills (detected using scanning electron microscopy) were both higher than in northern fish. These large differences in the regulation of Cl(-) balance probably contributed to the marked differences in mortality after freshwater transfer. Glomerular filtration rate and urination frequency were also lower in southerns. Taken together, these data suggest that northern killifish are better adapted to freshwater environments and that minimizing Cl(-) imbalance appears to be the key physiological difference accounting for their greater freshwater tolerance.