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The study was conducted to determine fennel essential oil (FEO) yield, composition, and antioxidant activity during four different maturation stages of umbels with seeds (1st stage: immature-pasty; 2nd stage: premature-waxy; 3rd stage: mature-fully ripe; and 4th stage: seeds only), and leaves of wild fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. vulgare) from the Montenegro coast. The maximum oil yield was found in premature umbels at the waxy stage (4.76 mL/100 g p.m.) and in fully ripe umbels in the early fruiting stage (5.16 mL/100 g p.m.). Fully ripe seeds contained the lowest FEO (mL/100 g p.m.). The minimum FEO content was found in leaves (0.67%). (E)-anethole (64%), α-phellandrene (11.0%), and fenchone (4.8%) were found to be the main components of the essential oil from immature fennel umbels. (E)-anethole (72.3%), fenchone (9.6%) and methyl chavicol (9.5%) were found to be the main components of the essential oil from premature fennel umbels. (E)-anethole (71.6%), fenchone (10.7%) and methyl chavicol (10.3%) were found to be the main components of the essential oil from mature fully ripe fennel umbels. Fennel seeds were rich in (E)-anethole (75.5%) and fenchone (13.7%). FEO from fennel leaves contained (E)-anethole (32.5%), α-phellandrene (18.8%), p-cymene (17.3%), and β-phellandrene (10.3%) as the main compounds. The antioxidant activity of FEO decreases from leaves (12.37 mg/mL) to seeds (37.20 mg/mL). The degree of DPPH radical neutralization increased with the incubation time. Fennel umbels can be harvested before the fully ripe stage, i.e., at the waxy stage, which considerably reduces seed shedding and losses and increases the essential oil yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to determine essential oil yield, composition, and antioxidant activity during two different maturation stages of umbels with seeds(I stage: premature–waxy; and II stage: mature–fully ripening) of wild carrot (Daucus carrota var. carota) from the Montenegrin coast. A higher yield of carrot essential oil (CEO) was determined in mature, fully ripening umbels (1.96 mL/100 g p.m) than in premature umbels at the waxy stage (mL/100 g p.m). Thirty-three components were identified in premature umbels, with β-bisabolene (32.3%), 11-α-(H)-himachal-4-en-1-β-ol (27.9%), elemicin (10.1%), and α-longipipene (7.7%) being the main components. They were followed by α-pinene (3.7%), (E)-asarone (3.4%), (E)-anethole (3.2%), and β-himachalene (2.0%). Thirty-two components were identified in CEO from mature umbels, with β-bisabolene (41.0%), 11-α-(H)-himachal-4-en-1-β-ol(21.1%), elemicin (14.8%), andα-longipipene (5.7%) being the most abundant. These components were followed by (E)-asarone (3.9%), cis-α-bisabolene (2.4%), and β-himachalene (2.0%). The CEO isolated from mature umbelsshowed better antioxidant activity (EC50 value of 31.80 mg/mL) in comparison to the CEO isolated from premature umbels (EC50 value of 49.18 mg/mL) during the incubation time of 60 min. The degree of DPPH radical neutralization increased as the incubation time increased from 20 to 60 min. Therefore, our findings recommend that wild carrot could be harvested in the fully ripening stage when the umbel improves CEO yield and antioxidant activity, without the risk of seed shedding from the umbel and seed losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was to compare the chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the essential oils from two plant parts (leaves and stems) of fennel, wild-grown in the Montenegro seaside. The chemical composition of the isolated essential oils was determined by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and flame ionization detection (GC/FID). The yield of the fennel essential oils (FEOs) from leaves (0.83%) was four times higher than that from the fennel stems (0.21%). Forty-six compounds were identified from leaves' FEOs and were mainly aromatic compounds (68.5%), monoterpenes (17.8%), and others, where the most abundant compounds were (E)-anethole (51.4%) and methyl chavicol (9.3%). Forty-seven compounds were identified in the FEOs from stems, which were mainly aromatic compounds (69.7%), oxygen-containing monoterpenes (14.9%), where the most abundant compounds were also (E)-anethole (55.7%) and methyl chavicol (7.8%). The FEOs from stems showed higher antioxidant activity, with an EC50 value of 2.58 mg/mL, than in the fennel leaves, which had an EC50 value of 6.91 mg/mL. The FEOs show superior antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans (45.3 mm) and Bacillus subtilis (24.0 mm). Isolated essential oils could be used as a safer alternative to synthetic additives in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]