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The espoused foundation of U.S. society, "E pluribus unum" (out of many, one), is based on the belief that this nation should simultaneously support pluralism and promote unity. The road to making this ideal a reality, however, has not always been smooth. The ever-widening achievement gap highlights how this discordance plays out in our education system. Ethnic studies came about to counterbalance the predominance of Euro-American perspectives in our textbooks and curricula and address the inaccuracies, myths, and misconceptions surrounding other groups. Efforts to create a better and more just America were recently tested, however, when an Arizona law prohibiting school districts from offering courses taught from a specific racial/ethnic perspective targeted the Mexican-American Studies Program in Tucson schools. In contrast, Montana's educators who embrace the Indian Education for All initiative and teach all students about Montana's first inhabitants is thriving. In this article, we summarize the research on ethnic studies; track the inception, opposition, and abolition of the ethnic studies program in Tucson; and describe how Montana legislators, state education agencies, tribal members, and classroom teachers have collaborated and successfully promoted the unprecedented reform effort known as Indian Education for All in this anti-ethnic studies national climate.

Montana's constitutional commitment to the cultural heritages of American Indians exemplifies the practical application of multicultural education. In this article, the authors explore the goals and evolution of Indian Education for All within a multicultural education framework, and discuss how educators are best prepared to implement this transformative educational policy.

• Snags are important components of forest ecosystems. • Snag fall occurred in every snag age class with the greatest proportion occurring 4–8 years since death (YSD). • Snags 13 and 14 years YSD had the lowest fall rates despite being the oldest. • Slope aspect had the strongest influence on fall rates. • The predicted half-life of snags was ~16 YSD. Snags (standing dead trees) are important components of forest ecosystems that, among other benefits, provide critical habitat for many species of wildlife, but also represent important safety concerns to firefighters, forest workers, and the public. We identified factors that influence the fall rates of lodgepole pines, Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud., killed by bark beetles during a severe regional-scale outbreak of mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, that occurred in 2004–2012. Data were obtained during annual assessments (2010–2019) of a network of 107 0.081-ha circular plots installed in P. contorta forests in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah and Wyoming, U.S. A total of 3789 P. contorta snags were monitored, and in each case we recorded, among other variables, the year the snag was created and the year the snag fell to the forest floor. Among snag age classes (i.e., number of years since tree death), the highest number of snags (1046) were 12 years since death (YSD), and those 13 and 14 YSD exhibited the lowest fall rates to date (<10%) despite being the oldest in our study. Snags 13 and 14 YSD were among the largest in diameter. Snag fall occurred in every snag age class from 1 to 14 YSD, with the greatest proportion of snag fall events occurring 4–8 YSD. By 2019, 24.7% (937) of snags fell to the forest floor. We modeled snag fall using a Cox's proportional-hazards model that included six covariates of interest: elevation (m), slope aspect (categorical, cardinal direction), slope (%), canopy cover (%), snag height (m), and snag height:dbh (m, diameter at 1.37 m in height). Slope aspect had the strongest influence on fall rates. Northern aspects, increased canopy cover, and taller snag heights decreased the probability of snag fall. Conversely, southern aspects and increased height:dbh ratios (i.e., taller, skinner snags) increased the probability of snag fall. The predicted half-life (i.e., the amount of time since death required for 50% of the snag population to fall to the forest floor) was ~16 YSD after which the function predicted a linear, ~0.04/year decline in snag survival probability 15–30 YSD. The observed longevity of P. contorta snags confers important ecological benefits for some wildlife, and may offer opportunities for extended periods of salvage. However, checking (cracks) rapidly occurred, and many snags 6 YSD and older had at least one check at 1.37 m and 5.5 m in height, which can negatively impact lumber recovery. The relatively slow snag fall rates observed in our study also lengthen concerns regarding hazard trees, human safety, and protection of critical infrastructure. The implications of these and other results to management of P. contorta forests are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Significant reductions in tree size and density occurred. • Tree mortality was positively correlated with tree density. • Significant increases in snag density occurred. • Lodgepole pine remained the dominant tree species despite increases in subalpine fir. • A long-term shift in tree composition is unlikely. Mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is the most important forest insect in western North America. We determined causes and rates of tree mortality and changes in forest structure and composition associated with D. ponderosae outbreaks in the Intermountain West, U.S. during 2004–2019 based on a network of 125 0.081-ha circular plots installed in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah and Wyoming. Incipient populations of D. ponderosae began in 2004; peaked in 2007; and returned to endemic levels in 2011 in Idaho, Montana, Utah and Wyoming. In Colorado, incipient populations began in 2004; peaked in 2009; and returned to endemic levels in 2012. A total of 5107 trees died, 98.6% were lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. Fifteen contributing factors were identified, including (in order of importance, highest to lowest) D. ponderosae , unknown causes, pine engraver, Ips pini (Say), wind, breakage and/or adjacent tree fall, Pityogenes knechteli Swaine/ Pityopthorus confertus Swaine , suppression, spruce beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis (Kirby), root disease, western balsam bark beetle, Dryocoetes confusus (Swain), lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium americanum Nutt. ex. Engelm., stem diseases, woodborers, North American porcupine, Erethizon dorsatum (L.), mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque), and lodgepole pine beetle, Dendroctonus murrayanae Hopkins. Most tree mortality (68.8%) was attributed solely to D. ponderosae , although D. ponderosae also occurred in association with other contributing factors. Overall, significant reductions in mean dbh (by 5.3%), mean quadratic mean diameter (by 8.6%), mean tree height (by 15.9%), mean number of trees (by 40.8%), mean basal area (by 52.9%), and mean stand density index (SDI) (by 51.8%) were observed. Significant reductions in tree density were observed in all diameter classes, except the smallest (midpoint = 10 cm, 5-cm classes). Significant increases in the mean number of snags (by 1324.7%) were observed, and most snags remain standing (71.3%). Pinus contorta remains the dominant tree species, and while significant increases in the number of subalpine fir, Abies lasiocarpa (Hooker) Nuttall, seedlings and saplings were observed, a long-term shift in tree composition is unlikely. Tree mortality (number of trees killed) was positively correlated with the initial number of live trees, basal area of live trees, SDI, and aspect, but not slope or elevation. The implications of these and other results to recovery and management of P. contorta forests in the Intermountain West are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several formulations of the antiaggregation pheromone verbenone (4,6,6-trimethylbicyclo [3.1.1]hept-3-en-2-one) are registered to protect pine trees and forest stands from mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), but failures in efficacy are not uncommon. In 2011–2013, a novel formulation of (−)-verbenone was developed (SPLAT® Verb, 10.0% (−)-verbenone by weight, EPA Reg. No. 80286−20, ISCA Technologies Inc., Riverside, CA, USA) for protecting individual lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud., and small stands of P. contorta from mortality attributed to D. ponderosae. We evaluated the efficacy of lower doses of SPLAT® Verb than previously considered for tree protection on the Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Montana, USA, 2014–2015. In an individual tree study, D. ponderosae pressure was not sufficient to adequately challenge the treatments as only 56.7% of the untreated controls died. However, if one additional tree in the untreated control had died, all verbenone treatments (30 g, 50 g, and 70 g of SPLAT® Verb/tree, and one 7-g verbenone pouch/tree) would have been considered efficacious. In a small-scale stand study, fewer P. contorta were colonized by D. ponderosae on 0.41-ha experimental plots treated with 2.5 kg and 3.5 kg of SPLAT® Verb [250 g and 350 g of (−)-verbenone, respectively] and the 7-g verbenone pouch [50 pouches/plot, 350.0 g of (−)-verbenone/plot] compared to the untreated control. No significant difference was observed between 1.5 kg of SPLAT® Verb [150 g of (−)-verbenone] and the untreated control. Fewer P. contorta were killed by D. ponderosae on experimental plots treated with 1.5 kg, 2.5 kg and 3.5 kg of SPLAT® Verb and the verbenone pouch compared to the untreated control. No other significant differences were observed among treatments. Collectively, these data suggest that lower doses of SPLAT® Verb can be used for tree protection than previously considered, and at a substantial cost savings that could make this strategy economically viable for area-wide management of D. ponderosae. • The anti-aggregation pheromone verbenone is used for tree protection. • SPLAT® Verb is a relatively new product containing verbenone. • Several doses of SPLAT® Verb were evaluated against mountain pine beetle. • Lower doses can be used than previously considered resulting in substantial cost savings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]