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Copyright of Conservation Biology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Greater sage‐grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; sage‐grouse) populations in the western United States have declined, necessitating conservation efforts. The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service and livestock producers implemented the Sage Grouse Initiative (SGI) to improve sage‐grouse habitat using regional‐specific management actions such as rotational grazing. We assessed the effect of SGI grazing management, the influence of brood female and chick morphometric traits, and multiple environmental and anthropogenic disturbance factors on chick mortality risk in a sage‐grouse population in central Montana, USA, from 2011–2019. We used a Kaplan‐Meier survival function to evaluate chick survival, Cox proportional hazards models to evaluate chick mortality risk as a function of brood female and chick morphometric traits, and the Andersen‐Gill formulation of the Cox proportional hazards model to assess the effects of time‐dependent habitat characteristics on chick mortality risk. Survival to 45 days post‐hatch for 510 chicks varied annually from 0.26 ± 0.07 (SE) to 0.69 ± 0.07. The 45‐day survival rate for all years combined was 0.51 ± 0.03. Chick mortality risk was not affected by changes in livestock grazing management implemented through the SGI grazing program. Brood female age and body condition, sex of chicks, vegetation, and anthropogenic variables were also unassociated with chick mortality risk. There were small protective effects of chick mass adjusted for age and mean minimum monthly temperature; greater chick mass and lower monthly temperatures correlated with reduced mortality risk. Overall, our study suggests the SGI grazing program does not confer additional benefits to sage‐grouse chicks beyond existing grazing practices. Incentivizing grazing practices that adhere to fundamental principles of rangeland ecology and maintain intact rangelands may be more effective than specific prescribed grazing systems for sage‐grouse conservation in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conversion of land for settlements and agriculture is increasing globally and can influence wildlife space use. However, there is limited research to identify the thresholds of land‐use change that incur wildlife avoidance and how these thresholds might vary across levels of selection.We evaluated multi‐level avoidance thresholds of elk Cervus canadensis impacted by residential development and irrigated agriculture across the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem in Idaho, Montana and Wyoming. Using GPS data from 765 elk in 21 herds, we estimated habitat selection in relation to development and agriculture at three levels (home range selection, within home range selection and movement path selection). Next, using individual selection covariates and associated measures of land‐use availability, we used functional‐response models to evaluate how selection varied based on availability, and in turn, to estimate avoidance thresholds.We found individual and level‐specific variation in elk responses to environmental factors. Elk exhibited stronger responses (either selection or avoidance) when selecting home range locations (i.e. second‐order selection) than when selecting areas within home ranges (i.e. third‐order selection) or selecting movement paths (i.e. fourth‐order selection). Importantly, elk avoidance of development and agriculture changed as the amount of land in these categories changed. Across all levels of selection elk exhibited neutral selection for human development at low levels of availability (<1.1%–2.2% developed) but avoided areas that were >1.1%–2.2% developed. Conversely, elk selected positively for irrigated agriculture at low to moderate levels of availability (<52.0%–66.2% agriculture) but exhibited neutral selection in areas that were >52.0%–66.2% agriculture.Synthesis and applications. Elk avoidance of low levels of human development suggests conservation efforts such as restrictions on future development or conservation easements could focus on areas that are still below 2% developed. Additionally, because elk selection was strongest at the landscape scale, conservation actions that are based on information about the overall landscape structure may be most impactful. Our results highlight the importance of understanding variability in wildlife habitat selection at multiple levels, particularly in relation to land‐use change, and highlight how functional response modelling can help inform landscape conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coexistence between large carnivores and humans is a global conservation concern. Montana (USA) is home to recovering grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) populations and increasing human–grizzly interactions. In 2019, we administered a survey of Montanans to investigate factors influencing normative beliefs about grizzly bear population sizes and quantify the relationship between these beliefs and satisfaction with grizzly management in the state. Using a linear regression (r2 =.61), we found that residents with positive attitudes and emotional dispositions toward grizzlies or who trusted the agency were more likely to believe grizzly populations were too low. Residents who believed hunting should be used to manage conflict, were themselves hunters, had vicarious wildlife experience with property damage, believed grizzly populations were expanding, or were older were more likely to believe populations were too high. We found a negative quadratic relationship between normative grizzly bear population size beliefs and satisfaction with management, suggesting an optimal "Goldilocks" zone where coexistence is most possible. In practice, if observed Goldilocks zones are incompatible with population numbers required to meet conservation goals, considering factors influencing these beliefs may help bolster acceptance of larger population sizes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A clear connection between basic research and applied management is often missing or difficult to discern. We present a case study of integration of basic research with applied management for estimating abundance of gray wolves (Canis lupus) in Montana, USA. Estimating wolf abundance is a key component of wolf management but is costly and time intensive as wolf populations continue to grow. We developed a multimodel approach using an occupancy model, mechanistic territory model, and empirical group size model to improve abundance estimates while reducing monitoring effort. Whereas field‐based wolf counts generally rely on costly, difficult‐to‐collect monitoring data, especially for larger areas or population sizes, our approach efficiently uses readily available wolf observation data and introduces models focused on biological mechanisms underlying territorial and social behavior. In a three‐part process, the occupancy model first estimates the extent of wolf distribution in Montana, based on environmental covariates and wolf observations. The spatially explicit mechanistic territory model predicts territory sizes using simple behavioral rules and data on prey resources, terrain ruggedness, and human density. Together, these models predict the number of packs. An empirical pack size model based on 14 years of data demonstrates that pack sizes are positively related to local densities of packs, and negatively related to terrain ruggedness, local mortalities, and intensity of harvest management. Total abundance estimates for given areas are derived by combining estimated numbers of packs and pack sizes. We estimated the Montana wolf population to be smallest in the first year of our study, with 91 packs and 654 wolves in 2007, followed by a population peak in 2011 with 1252 wolves. The population declined ~6% thereafter, coincident with implementation of legal harvest in Montana. Recent numbers have largely stabilized at an average of 191 packs and 1141 wolves from 2016 to 2020. This new approach accounts for biologically based, spatially explicit predictions of behavior to provide more accurate estimates of carnivore abundance at finer spatial scales. By integrating basic and applied research, our approach can therefore better inform decision‐making and meet management needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding animal distribution is important for management of populations and their habitats. Across the western United States, elk (Cervus canadensis) provide important ecological, cultural, and economic benefits and the sound management of their habitats is of vital importance. In western Montana, National Forest lands are managed in part to provide and protect elk habitat needs, and summer elk habitat is managed with consideration to motorized routes. We evaluated the relative importance of nutritional resources, access routes, and other landscape attributes on elk summer resource selection at multiple spatial scales, and compared resource selection among nine different southwestern Montana elk populations to determine the applicability of generalized regional models for informing habitat management recommendations. First, we developed nine population‐specific and two regional summer resource selection models. Second, we evaluated the predictive performance of each model within and among elk populations using cross‐validation scores to identify the best model. We found that in all populations nutritional resources, best represented using normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) metrics, were the most important factors associated with elk summer resource selection. Access routes affected resource selection in all populations; however, the influence of access routes was relatively modest as compared with nutritional resources. Of the access route covariates we considered, density of all routes (i.e., routes open and closed to motorized use) explained most variation in summer elk resource selection. Validation of population‐specific resource selection models among populations revealed that in many cases model predictions extrapolated to areas outside of the development area had modest to poor predictive performance, especially as distance from the modeled population increased. Thus, caution should be used when extrapolating resource selection models based on a single study population to other populations. Regional models of resource selection predicted resource selection across populations better than population‐specific models, particularly when constructed by pooling data from multiple populations, and we recommend these types of models be used to inform regional habitat management policies. Our results suggest that managers should expand any current management paradigm for elk summer habitat that is focused on limiting access route density to also consider nutritional resources as an important component of elk summer habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is expected to disproportionately affect species occupying ecosystems with relatively hard boundaries, such as alpine ecosystems. Wildlife managers must identify actions to conserve and manage alpine species into the future, while considering other issues and uncertainties. Climate change and respiratory pathogens associated with widespread pneumonia epidemics in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) may negatively affect mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) populations. Mountain goat demographic and population data are challenging to collect and sparsely available, making population management decisions difficult. We developed predictive models incorporating these uncertainties and analyzed results within a structured decision making framework to make management recommendations and identify priority information needs in Montana, USA. We built resource selection models to forecast occupied mountain goat habitat and account for uncertainty in effects of climate change, and a Leslie matrix projection model to predict population trends while accounting for uncertainty in population demographics and dynamics. We predicted disease risks while accounting for uncertainty about presence of pneumonia pathogens and risk tolerance for mixing populations during translocations. Our analysis predicted that new introductions would produce more area occupied by mountain goats at mid‐century, regardless of the effects of climate change. Population augmentations, carnivore management, and harvest management may improve population trends, although this was associated with considerable uncertainty. Tolerance for risk of disease transmission affected optimal management choices because translocations are expected to increase disease risks for mountain goats and sympatric bighorn sheep. Expected value of information analyses revealed that reducing uncertainty related to population dynamics would affect the optimal choice among management strategies to improve mountain goat trends. Reducing uncertainty related to the presence of pneumonia‐associated pathogens and consequences of mixing microbial communities should reduce disease risks if translocations are included in future management strategies. We recommend managers determine tolerance for disease risks associated with translocations that they and constituents are willing to accept. From this, an adaptive management program can be constructed wherein a portfolio of management actions are chosen based on risk tolerance in each population range, combined with the amount that uncertainty is reduced when paired with monitoring, to ultimately improve achievement of fundamental objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring rare and elusive carnivores is inherently challenging because they often occur at low densities and require more resources to effectively assess status and trend. The fisher (Pekania pennanti) is an elusive mesocarnivore endemic to North America; in its western populations it is classified as a species of greatest conservation need. During winter of 2018–2019, we deployed remotely triggered cameras in randomly selected, spatially balanced 7.5‐km × 7.5‐km grid cells across a broad study area in western Montana, Idaho, and eastern Washington, USA. As part of this large‐scale, multi‐state monitoring effort, we conducted an occupancy assessment of the Northern Rocky Mountain fisher population at a range‐wide scale. We used non‐spatial occupancy models to determine the current extent of fisher occurrence in the Northern Rocky Mountains and to provide baseline occupancy estimates across a broad study area and a refined sampling frame for future monitoring. We used a spatial occupancy model to determine patterns in fisher occurrence across their Northern Rocky Mountain range while explicitly correcting for spatially induced overdispersion. Additionally, we assessed factors that influenced fisher occurrence through covariate occupancy modeling that considered predicted fisher habitat, site‐level environmental characteristics, and the influence of available harvest records (incidental and regulated). We detected fishers in 32 out of 318 (10%) of our surveyed cells, and estimated that overall, 160 (14%; 95% CI = 115–218) of 1,143 grid cells were occupied by fishers. Fisher occupancy was positively associated with our stratum that contained cells with a greater proportion of predicted fisher habitat and with proximity to nearest 2000–2015 harvest location. Fisher occupancy was weakly and positively associated with increased canopy cover. Our spatial model identified 2 areas with higher predicted occupancy: a large area across the Idaho Nez Perce‐Clearwater National Forest, and a smaller area in the Cabinet Mountain Range crossing the northern border of Idaho and Montana. We used spatial occupancy results from our original sampling frame to create a biologically derived refined sampling frame for future monitoring. Within the bounds of our refined sampling frame, we estimated that 155 (22%; 95% CI = 110–209) of 700 grid cells were occupied by fishers. By incorporating our increasing understanding of fisher habitat with contemporary analytical techniques, we defined current range‐wide occupancy of the Northern Rocky Mountain fisher population, identified core areas of fisher occurrence for future conservation efforts, and used our model results to create a refined sampling frame for future fisher monitoring in the Northern Rocky Mountains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an outcome of natural selection, animals are probably adapted to select territories economically by maximizing benefits and minimizing costs of territory ownership. Theory and empirical precedent indicate that a primary benefit of many territories is exclusive access to food resources, and primary costs of defending and using space are associated with competition, travel and mortality risk. A recently developed mechanistic model for economical territory selection provided numerous empirically testable predictions. We tested these predictions using location data from grey wolves (Canis lupus) in Montana, USA. As predicted, territories were smaller in areas with greater densities of prey, competitors and low-use roads, and for groups of greater size. Territory size increased before decreasing curvilinearly with greater terrain ruggedness and harvest mortalities. Our study provides evidence for the economical selection of territories as a causal mechanism underlying ecological patterns observed in a cooperative carnivore. Results demonstrate how a wide range of environmental and social conditions will influence economical behaviour and resulting space use. We expect similar responses would be observed in numerous territorial species. A mechanistic approach enables understanding how and why animals select particular territories. This knowledge can be used to enhance conservation efforts and more successfully predict effects of conservation actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the western United States, wolverines (Gulo gulo) typically occupy high‐elevation habitats. Because wolverine populations occur in vast, remote areas across multiple states, biologists have an imperfect understanding of this species' current distribution and population status. The historical extirpation of the wolverine, a subsequent period of recovery, and the lack of a coordinated monitoring program in the western United States to determine their current distribution further complicate understanding of their population status. We sought to define the limits to the current distribution, identify potential gaps in distribution, and provide a baseline dataset for future monitoring and analysis of factors contributing to changes in distribution of wolverines across 4 western states. We used remotely triggered camera stations and hair snares to detect wolverines across randomly selected 15‐km × 15‐km cells in Idaho, Montana, Washington, and Wyoming, USA, during winters 2016 and 2017. We used spatial occupancy models to examine patterns in wolverine distribution. We also examined the influence of proportion of the cell containing predicted wolverine habitat, human‐modified land, and green vegetation, and area of the cluster of contiguous sampling cells. We sampled 183 (28.9%) of 633 cells that comprised a suspected wolverine range in these 4 states and we detected wolverines in 59 (32.2%) of these 183 sampled cells. We estimated that 268 cells (42.3%; 95% CI = 182–347) of the 633 cells were used by wolverines. Proportion of the cell containing modeled wolverine habitat was weakly positively correlated with wolverine occupancy, but no other covariates examined were correlated with wolverine occupancy. Occupancy rates (ψ) were highest in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (ψ range = 0.8–1), intermediate in the Cascades and Central Mountains of Idaho (ψ range = 0.4–0.6), and lower in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (ψ range = 0.1–0.3). We provide baseline data for future surveys of wolverine along with a design and protocol to conduct those surveys. © 2020 The Authors. The Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of The Wildlife Society. Wolverines occupy most of the predicted habitat in Idaho, Montana, Washington, and Wyoming; occupancy probability is highest in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem and declines to the south and west. We provide a monitoring design for wolverines across the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Wildlife Monographs is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

ABSTRACT: The relative roles of science and human values can be difficult to distinguish when informal processes are used to make complex and contentious decisions in wildlife management. Structured Decision Making (SDM) offers a formal process for making such decisions, where scientific results and concepts can be disentangled from the values of differing stakeholders. We used SDM to formally integrate science and human values for a citizen working group of ungulate hunting advocates, lion hunting advocates, and outfitters convened to address the contentious allocation of harvest quotas for mountain lions (Puma concolor) in west‐central Montana, USA, during 2014. A science team consisting of mountain lion biologists and population ecologists convened to support the working group. The science team used integrated population models that incorporated 4 estimates of mountain lion density to estimate population trajectories for 5 alternative harvest quotas developed by the working group. Results of the modeling predicted that effects of each harvest quota were consistent across the 4 density estimates; harvest quotas affected predicted population trajectories for 5 years after implementation but differences were not strong. Based on these results, the focus of the working group changed to differences in values among stakeholders that were the true impediment to allocating harvest quotas. By distinguishing roles of science and human values in this process, the working group was able to collaboratively recommend a compromise solution. This solution differed little from the status quo that had been the focus of debate, but the SDM process produced understanding and buy‐in among stakeholders involved, reducing disagreements, misunderstanding, and unproductive arguments founded on informal application of scientific data and concepts. Whereas investments involved in conducting SDM may be unnecessary for many decisions in wildlife management, the investment may be beneficial for complex, contentious, and multiobjective decisions that integrate science and human values. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Big-game hunting is a valuable resource for outdoor recreation opportunities, an economic driver for state and local economies, and the primary mechanism for funding game and non-game wildlife management. However, hunting license sales are declining, leading many state wildlife management agencies to re-evaluate funding and management structures. Understanding the mechanisms behind such declines, and diagnosing the persistence of such trends is necessary to anticipate license fund fluctuations. To examine hunter recruitment and retention rates, we analyzed a data set of >490,000 deer and elk license records from 2002 to 2011 from the Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks' Automated Licensing System. We used a temporal symmetry model in a mark-recapture framework to estimate hunter retention, recruitment rates, and population change, and then used population change estimates to forecast future hunter populations. We used covariates of gender, age, residency, and license price to improve model parsimony. Millennial generation hunters increased during the 11-year analysis, and this was driven by high recruitment rates of young hunters, especially women, but recruitment decreased dramatically as youth aged. Because Baby Boomers constitute such a large proportion of the hunting population, decreases in recruitment and retention in this cohort drove declines in the Montana hunter population. Increasing license price decreased the probability of recruiting and retaining hunters. The hunter population was stable until 2006, but has been declining since that time with nearly a 50% decline in hunter recruitment from 2002 to 2011. © 2014 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Good decision-making is essential to conserving wildlife populations. Although there may be multiple ways to address a problem, perfect solutions rarely exist. Managers are therefore tasked with identifying decisions that will best achieve desired outcomes. Structured decision making (SDM) is a method of decision analysis used to identify the most effective, efficient, and realistic decisions while accounting for values and priorities of the decision maker. The stepwise process includes identifying the management problem, defining objectives for solving the problem, developing alternative approaches to achieve the objectives, and formally evaluating which alternative is most likely to accomplish the objectives. The SDM process can be more effective than informal decision-making because it provides a transparent way to quantitatively evaluate decisions for addressing multiple management objectives while incorporating science, uncertainty, and risk tolerance. To illustrate the application of this process to a management need, we present an SDM-based decision tool developed to identify optimal decisions for proactively managing risk of pneumonia epizootics in bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis) in Montana. Pneumonia epizootics are a major challenge for managers due to long-term impacts to herds, epistemic uncertainty in timing and location of future epizootics, and consequent difficulty knowing how or when to manage risk. The decision tool facilitates analysis of alternative decisions for how to manage herds based on predictions from a risk model, herd-specific objectives, and predicted costs and benefits of each alternative. Decision analyses for 2 example herds revealed that meeting management objectives necessitates specific approaches unique to each herd. The analyses showed how and under what circumstances the alternatives are optimal compared to other approaches and current management. Managers can be confident that these decisions are effective, efficient, and realistic because they explicitly account for important considerations managers implicitly weigh when making decisions, including competing management objectives, uncertainty in potential outcomes, and risk tolerance. © 2016 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Wolf ( Canis lupus) predation on livestock and management methods used to mitigate conflicts are highly controversial and scrutinized especially where wolf populations are recovering. Wolves are commonly removed from a local area in attempts to reduce further depredations, but the effectiveness of such management actions is poorly understood. We compared the effects of 3 management responses to livestock depredation by wolf packs in Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming: no removal, partial pack removal, and full pack removal. We examined the effectiveness of each management response in reducing further depredations using a conditional recurrent event model. From 1989 to 2008, we documented 967 depredations by 156 packs: 228 on sheep and 739 on cattle and other stock. Median time between recurrent depredations was 19 days following no removal ( n = 593), 64 days following partial pack removal ( n = 326), and 730 days following full pack removal ( n = 48; recurring depredations were made by the next pack to occupy the territory). Compared to no removal, full pack removal reduced the occurrence of subsequent depredations by 79% (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.21, P < 0.001) over a span of 1,850 days (5 years), whereas partial pack removal reduced the occurrence of subsequent depredations by 29% (HR = 0.71, P < 0.001) over the same period. Partial pack removal was most effective if conducted within the first 7 days following depredation, after which there was only a marginally significant difference between partial pack removal and no action (HR = 0.86, P = 0.07), and no difference after 14 days (HR = 0.99, P = 0.93). Within partial pack removal, we found no difference in depredation recurrence when a breeding female (HR = 0.64, P = 0.2) or ≥1-year-old male was removed (HR = 1.0, P = 0.99). The relative effect of all treatments was generally consistent across seasons (spring, summer grazing, and winter) and type of livestock. Ultimately, pack size was the best predictor of a recurrent depredation event; the probability of a depredation event recurring within 5 years increased by 7% for each animal left in the pack after the management response. However, the greater the number of wolves left in a pack, the higher the likelihood the pack met federal criteria to count as a breeding pair the following year toward population recovery goals. Published 2015. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal prion disease that affects a variety of ungulate species including mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus). As of 2014, no CWD cases had been reported in free-ranging ungulates in Montana. However, nearby cases in Canada, Wyoming, and the Dakotas indicated that the disease was encroaching on Montana's borders. Mule deer are native and common throughout Montana, and they represent a significant portion of the total hunter-harvested cervids in the state. The arrival of CWD in Montana may have significant ecosystem and socioeconomic impacts as well as potential consequences for wildlife management. We used 18,879 mule deer locations from 892 individual deer collected during 1975-2011 and modeled habitat selection for 7 herds in 5 of the 7 wildlife management regions in Montana. We estimated resource selection functions (RSF) in a Bayesian framework to predict summer and winter habitat preferences for mule deer. We estimated deer abundance from flyover counts for each region, and used the RSF predictions as weights to distribute the deer across the region. We then calculated the distance to the nearest known infected herds. We predicted areas of high risk of CWD infection in mule deer as areas with densities above the median density estimate and within the lowest quartile of distances to known infected herds. We identified these areas, the southeast corner of Montana and the north-central border near Alberta and Saskatchewan, as priority areas for CWD surveillance and management efforts. Published 2015. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Mountain lions ( Puma concolor) are widely hunted for recreation, population control, and to reduce conflict with humans, but much is still unknown regarding the effects of harvest on mountain lion population dynamics. Whether human hunting mortality on mountain lions is additive or compensatory is debated. Our primary objective was to investigate population effects of harvest on mountain lions. We addressed this objective with a management experiment of 3 years of intensive harvest followed by a 6-year recovery period. In December 2000, after 3 years of hunting, approximately 66% of a single game management unit within the Blackfoot River watershed in Montana was closed to lion hunting, effectively creating a refuge representing approximately 12% (915 km2) of the total study area (7,908 km2). Hunting continued in the remainder of the study area, but harvest levels declined from approximately 9/1,000 km2 in 2001 to 2/1,000 km2 in 2006 as a result of the protected area and reduced quotas outside. We radiocollared 117 mountain lions from 1998 to 2006. We recorded known fates for 63 animals, and right-censored the remainder. Although hunting directly reduced survival, parameters such as litter size, birth interval, maternity, age at dispersal, and age of first reproduction were not significantly affected. Sensitivity analysis showed that female survival and maternity were most influential on population growth. Life-stage simulation analysis (LSA) demonstrated the effect of hunting on the population dynamics of mountain lions. In our non-hunted population, reproduction (kitten survival and maternity) accounted for approximately 62% of the variation in growth rate, whereas adult female survival accounted for 30%. Hunting reversed this, increasing the reliance of population growth on adult female survival (45% of the variation in population growth), and away from reproduction (12%). Our research showed that harvest at the levels implemented in this study did not affect population productivity (i.e., maternity), but had an additive effect on mountain lion mortality, and therefore population growth. Through harvest, wildlife managers have the ability to control mountain lion populations. Published 2014. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Territoriality in animals is of both theoretical and conservation interest. Animals are territorial when benefits of exclusive access to a limiting resource outweigh costs of maintaining and defending it. The size of territories can be considered a function of ecological factors that affect this benefit-cost ratio. Previous research has shown that territory sizes for wolves (Canis lupus) are largely determined by available biomass of prey, and possibly pack size and density of neighboring wolf packs, but has not been interpreted in a benefit-cost framework. Such a framework is relevant for wolves living in the Northern Rocky Mountains where conflicts with humans increase mortality, thereby potentially increasing costs of being territorial and using prey resources located near humans. We estimated territory sizes for 38 wolf packs in Montana from 2008 to 2009 using 90% adaptive kernels. We then created generalized linear models (GLMs) representing combinations of ecological factors hypothesized to affect the territory sizes of wolf packs. Our top GLM, which had good model fit (R2 = 0.68, P < 0.0005), suggested that territory sizes of wolves in Montana were positively related to terrain ruggedness, lethal controls, and human density and negatively related to number of surrounding packs relative to the size of the territory. We found that the top GLM successfully predicted territory sizes (R2 = 0.53, P < 0.0005) using a jackknife approach. Our study shows that territory sizes of group-living carnivores are influenced by not only intraspecific competition and availability of limiting resources, but also by anthropogenic threats to the group's survival, which could have important consequences where these territorial carnivores come into conflict with humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Big game hunting is the most popular type of hunting in the United States, and deer and elk hunting are the most popular type of hunting in Montana. Similar to other states, deer and elk hunting also generates most of the revenue spent on wildlife conservation by the state of Montana. Although nationwide trends indicate a concerning decline in hunter participation, the trends in license sales and hunter participation within most states have not received as much attention. We investigated trends in resident deer and elk license sales in Montana using existing licensing databases. We then estimated hunter recruitment, hunter participation, and license purchasing probabilities using hunter education and licensing databases. We employed a multi-state mark-recapture model and 248,819 records of deer and elk license purchasing habits for individual Montana residents during 2002-2007. We used matrix population models to examine the relative influence of these parameters on trends in license sales and hunter participation. Resident deer and elk license sales increased 4% in Montana during 2002-2007. We found that males had greater recruitment rates, retention rates, and license purchasing probabilities than females, and that young adults had lesser license purchasing probabilities than other age classes. Based on analyses of matrix population models, trends in license sales in Montana are most influenced by middle-aged and baby boomer male license purchase probabilities. Trends in hunter participation are positively influenced by recruitment and retention in all male age classes, with the smallest predicted effects arising from recruitment of young adult males. Our results suggest that a focus on older age class males with programs designed to increase hunter recruitment, retention, and license purchase probabilities may have similar or larger effects on trends in license sales and hunter participation in Montana than programs directed at youth. Our analyses also provide a framework by which trends in hunter recruitment, retention, and license purchasing habits can be objectively quantified in order to inform and evaluate hunter recruitment, retention, and license purchase habit programs. © 2011 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reliable analyses can help wildlife managers make good decisions, which are particularly critical for controversial decisions such as wolf ( Canis lupus) harvest. Creel and Rotella (2010) recently predicted substantial population declines in Montana wolf populations due to harvest, in contrast to predictions made by Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks (MFWP). We replicated their analyses considering only those years in which field monitoring was consistent, and we considered the effect of annual variation in recruitment on wolf population growth. Rather than assuming constant rates, we used model selection methods to evaluate and incorporate models of factors driving recruitment and human-caused mortality rates in wolf populations in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Using data from 27 area-years of intensive wolf monitoring, we show that variation in both recruitment and human-caused mortality affect annual wolf population growth rates and that human-caused mortality rates have increased with the sizes of wolf populations. We document that recruitment rates have decreased over time, and we speculate that rates have decreased with increasing population sizes and/or that the ability of current field resources to document recruitment rates has recently become less successful as the number of wolves in the region has increased. Estimates of positive wolf population growth in Montana from our top models are consistent with field observations and estimates previously made by MFWP for 2008-2010, whereas the predictions for declining wolf populations of Creel and Rotella (2010) are not. Familiarity with limitations of raw data, obtained first-hand or through consultation with scientists who collected the data, helps generate more reliable inferences and conclusions in analyses of publicly available datasets. Additionally, development of efficient monitoring methods for wolves is a pressing need, so that analyses such as ours will be possible in future years when fewer resources will be available for monitoring. © 2011 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Model-based predictors derived from historical data are rarely evaluated before they are used to draw inferences. We performed a temporal validation, (i.e. assessed the performance of a predictive model using data collected from the same population after the model was developed) of a statistical predictor for the number of successful breeding pairs of wolves Canis lupus in the northern Rocky Mountains (NRM). We predicted the number of successful breeding pairs, β, in Idaho, Montana and Wyoming based on the distribution of pack sizes observed through monitoring in 2006 and 2007 (ˆβ), and compared these estimates to the minimum number of successful breeding pairs, βMIN, observed through intensive monitoring. βMIN was consistently included within the 95% confidence intervals of ˆβ for all states in both years (except for Idaho in 2007), generally following the pattern ˆβL (lower 95% prediction interval for ˆβ) , ˆβMIN , ˆ β. This evaluation of ˆβ estimates for 2006 and 2007 suggest it will be a robust model-based method for predicting successful breeding pairs of NRM wolves in the future, provided influences other than those modeled in ˆβ (e.g. disease outbreak, severe winter) do not have a strong effect on wolf populations. Managers can use ˆβ models with added confidence as part of their post-delisting monitoring of wolves in NRM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Montana has long been known for the big game hunting opportunities it provides both residents and nonresidents. This may change in the future, as the state confronts a number of challenging issues that pose a serious threat to its long-standing hunting culture. This paper examines key changes that have occurred in recent years involving population and technology, landownership and access, and politics and license allocation. The potential impacts of these issues on the hunting experience are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exurban expansion can degrade significantly stream water quality. This study was conducted on Rock Creek of the Clark's Fork of the Yellowstone River in southcentral Montana, USA. The impact from recent exurban expansion was evaluated by a baseline study measuring total suspended solids (TSS), total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN) and nitrites (NO2) and nitrates (NO3) together. This was part of a larger study by Montana Department of Environmental Quality to assess water quality, identify sources of pollution and develop total maximum daily loads (TMDL). Water samples were measured for these analytes at nine (2022) and 11 (2023) locations with different land-uses over seven periods (both years). Seasonal spikes, corresponding to runoff (2022, late May), occurred in TSS, TP and TN. Data from 2023 showed similar but reduced levels occurring in June for TSS and TP. Total suspended solids, TP, NO2 and NO3 concentrations increased by location year over year, 2022 to 2023. The high relative concentrations of NO2 and NO3 in Rock Creek are primarily associated with exurban expansion, a significant threat to stream quality and wildlife habitat in Montana. The results will assist county planners in land use decisions. KEY POLICY HIGHLIGHTS: Nitrite and nitrate levels were significantly higher in Rock Creek near exurban areas. Nitrite and nitrate and total phosphorus levels increased 23% and 27%, respectively, from 2022 to 2023. Exurban expansion has accounted for 78% of homes built in our study area, with an accompanied 31,840 acres of habitat loss. Two sites are within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and all sites are within the historic home range for the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) and wolverine (Gulo gulo). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildfire activity across the western United States has increased in recent decades, with wildfires burning at a higher severity and larger scale. The effect of wildfires on forest structure and wildlife habitat is largely influenced by wildfire severity; however, few studies have evaluated the effects of wildfire severity on resource selection of ungulates, particularly during hunting seasons, when knowledge of resource selection is essential for making informed management decisions. To fill this knowledge gap, we fit resource selection probability functions for female elk (Cervus canadensis) in years 2 and 3 post‐wildfire to evaluate the effects of wildfire severity and other environmental and anthropogenic factors on elk resource selection during 4 autumn periods with varying levels of hunter pressure (prehunt, archery‐only, backcountry rifle, and rifle). The probability of female elk selecting low‐severity burned forests during the prehunt, archery‐only, backcountry rifle, and rifle periods was 0.99 (95% credible interval [CrI] = 0.98–1.00), 0.99 (CrI = 0.97–1.00), 0.99 (CrI = 0.99–1.00), and 0.0010 (CrI = 0.00067–0.0015]), respectively, and did not strongly differ from the probability of selecting high‐severity burned forests. During the prehunt period, elk also selected areas with greater forage quality and areas farther from open roads. Elk selected similar resources during the archery period, and selected areas with higher hunter pressure. Elk started leaving hunting districts that had higher snowpack (i.e., snow water equivalent; β = −0.84, CrI = −0.96–−0.72) and allowed rifle hunting (β = −5.39, CrI = −5.80–−4.97) but still selected areas with higher hunter pressure (β = 0.92, CrI = 0.78–1.07) during the backcountry rifle period. During the rifle period, elk continued avoiding areas with high snowpack (β = −3.96, CrI = −4.22–−3.71) and started selecting areas with lower hunter pressure (β = −1.71, CrI = −1.79–−1.64) and lower canopy cover. Overall, wildfire affected elk distributions in early autumn 2 and 3 years after fire in our study area, with limited differences in resource selection between wildfire severity categories. By late autumn, hunter pressure and snowpack were the primary factors influencing elk distribution, and wildfire had little influence on selection. When estimating wildfire effects on elk movements during autumn and establishing appropriate hunting regulations, managers should consider the hunting season, hunter pressure, timing and amount of snowpack, location of traditional winter range, and the seasonal elk range burned, as all these factors may contribute to how elk use the landscape in autumn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reintroduction of the gray wolf (Canis lupus) has been largely successful in the upper Rocky Mountain region (URM). This led the federal government to hand over the responsibility of managing the species to the individual states of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. As each state currently works mainly independently, this study examines if there are any spillover effects to jointly managing wolves in the region. We develop theoretical optimal control and system dynamics bioeconomic models to determine the steady states for the number of wolves, their management, and corresponding net benefits for Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and the region as a whole from 2000 to 2030. Results from the models show potential benefits when states work together in the form of greater economic efficiencies in management and potentially larger wolf populations. Using a system dynamics model, we find the optimal management path under three different management scenarios with the possibility of improving net benefits by almost $1 million per year when states work together. Our results provide meaningful insights for policymakers which could potentially impact how states approach management of a species that can be both expensive and controversial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impediments that constrain animal movements across spatiotemporally heterogeneous landscapes can result in reduced or complete loss of access to critical resources. Across their range in North America, pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) are exposed to fences that can affect their ability to permeate the landscape, access critical resources, and respond to climatic variations. Understanding pronghorn movement responses to fences is essential for improving landscape permeability; however, prior studies provide only limited insight due to lack of information on fence characteristics and small sample sizes. Our study used hourly collar locations from adult female pronghorn in six herds in Montana, USA, and identified encounters with mapped fences to evaluate three movement responses (i.e., probability of an unaltered initial response, probability of crossing following an altered initial response, and passage time following an altered initial response) as a function of fence and landscape attributes. Based on 5581 encounters identified from movement pathways of 265 collared pronghorn and 979 km of mapped fences, we found that variability in pronghorn fence response was correlated with fence type. Woven wire fences substantially reduced unaltered initial and crossing responses and increased passage times as compared with low (i.e., average lowest wire height <41 cm) or high (i.e., average lowest wire height ≥41 cm) strand fences. Both low and high strand fences elicited similar responses of being relatively permeable at the initial encounter with reduced permeability thereafter. Fence crossing probabilities following altered initial responses increased through time modestly for strand fences but only negligibly for woven wire fences, with passage times averaging approximately 14 h. Pronghorn knowledge of and fidelity to specific permeable locations along fences, which may be due to inconsistent fence and landscape characteristics along the fence stretch, likely allow some woven wire fences and most strand fences, regardless of the average lowest wire height, to be permeable. Improving landscape permeability for pronghorn should focus on removing woven wire fences, replacing woven wire fences with strand fences, and incorporating variation in the lowest wire heights into new fence designs or modifications of existing fences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) are a valued game species across their range in North America. At higher latitudes mule deer inhabit the Northern Forests ecoregion, where the winter season poses challenging conditions. We studied resource selection during winter by mule deer in northwest Montana, USA, focused on the effects of snow and canopy cover on deer behavior. Specifically, we assessed the effects of land cover type, terrain characteristics, snow accumulation, percent canopy cover, solar radiation, and forage biomass on resource selection by 126 mule deer captured during 2017–2019 in 3 partially migratory subpopulations. We collected pellet samples and conducted diet analyses to assess forage species by individual and study area. Deer displayed a shift from nitrogen‐rich forbs and shrubs in summer to nutrient‐poor evergreens like conifers in winter. Deer avoided areas with deeper snow and sought more closed canopy forests for their snow‐intercept advantages. Weather and vegetative variation among and within study areas resulted in disparities in selection for attributes such as land cover. Similarly, mule deer diets varied spatiotemporally as a function of snow, with some deer favoring coniferous species in deep snow, whereas others less constrained by snow had more diverse diets with more shrub species. Additional analyses revealed annual individual survival correlated with changes in snow depth, suggesting fitness consequences as snow accumulated. These differences suggest locally adapted behaviors as mule deer reflect energetic constraints of winter landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To be most effective, the scale of wildlife management practices should match the range of a particular species’ movements. For this reason, combined with our inability to rigorously or regularly census mountain lion populations, several authors have suggested that mountain lions be managed in a source-sink or metapopulation framework. We used a combination of resource selection functions, mortality estimation, and dispersal modeling to estimate cougar population levels in Montana statewide and potential population level effects of planned harvest levels. Between 1980 and 2012, 236 independent mountain lions were collared and monitored for research in Montana. From these data we used 18,695 GPS locations collected during winter from 85 animals to develop a resource selection function (RSF), and 11,726 VHF and GPS locations from 142 animals along with the locations of 6343 mountain lions harvested from 1988–2011 to validate the RSF model. Our RSF model validated well in all portions of the State, although it appeared to perform better in Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks (MFWP) Regions 1, 2, 4 and 6, than in Regions 3, 5, and 7. Our mean RSF based population estimate for the total population (kittens, juveniles, and adults) of mountain lions in Montana in 2005 was 3926, with almost 25% of the entire population in MFWP Region 1. Estimates based on a high and low reference population estimates produce a possible range of 2784 to 5156 mountain lions statewide. Based on a range of possible survival rates we estimated the mountain lion population in Montana to be stable to slightly increasing between 2005 and 2010 with lambda ranging from 0.999 (SD = 0.05) to 1.02 (SD = 0.03). We believe these population growth rates to be a conservative estimate of true population growth. Our model suggests that proposed changes to female harvest quotas for 2013–2015 will result in an annual statewide population decline of 3% and shows that, due to reduced dispersal, changes to harvest in one management unit may affect population growth in neighboring units where smaller or even no changes were made. Uncertainty regarding dispersal levels and initial population density may have a significant effect on predictions at a management unit scale (i.e. 2000 km 2 ), while at a regional scale (i.e. 50,000 km 2 ) large differences in initial population density result in relatively small changes in population growth rate, and uncertainty about dispersal may not be as influential. Doubling the presumed initial density from a low estimation of 2.19 total animals per 100 km 2 resulted in a difference in annual population growth rate of only 2.6% statewide when compared to high density of 4.04 total animals per 100 km 2 (low initial population estimate λ = 0.99, while high initial population estimate λ = 1.03). We suggest modeling tools such as this may be useful in harvest planning at a regional and statewide level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A decades‐long decline in hunting participation jeopardizes state wildlife agency funding amid growing conservation and management challenges. College students are being recognized by states and non‐governmental organizations as an important population for hunter recruitment and retention, fueling a proliferation of learn‐to‐hunt programs on college campuses. Nearly 3,000,000 students attend college in a state where they are not a resident and may face constraints to hunting. We analyzed hunting license residency statutes in each state to determine whether non‐resident college students were addressed in statutes or policies, catalog statutory provisions that may exclude populations of students from hunting, and document how students' residency status affects the price of a deer and small game license. Nationwide, 29 states have statutes allowing non‐resident college students to hunt at a resident rate. Among these states, we identified a patchwork of statutory requirements for non‐resident students to be eligible for resident‐rate licenses, including waiting periods, age restrictions, credit restrictions, and unclear or onerous purchasing procedures. Non‐resident college students fell into a gray area of licensing policy in the 21 states without statutes addressing this group. In these states, students often needed to pay non‐resident hunting license rates. Hunting licenses were substantially more expensive for non‐resident college students in states without statutes addressing students, and license sales data from Montana, USA, indicated that high license prices are a constraint for student hunters. With college students becoming a focal point for hunter recruitment efforts, we identify statutory constraints to recruiting and retaining hunters on college campuses and help improve the effectiveness of learn‐to‐hunt programs on college campuses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hunters support scavengers with seasonal pulses of carrion. If those hunters also deploy remote cameras at kill sites, they could simultaneously contribute data to wildlife research while gaining first‐hand knowledge of scavenger ecology. In 2018–2020, we recruited hunters to monitor carcasses and offal with remote cameras across western Montana, USA. We increased our sampling effort by also setting up cameras following successful elk (Cervus canadensis) hunts at a private ranch. Cameras recorded 19 scavenger species. Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) appeared at 55% of sites, and 3 individuals wore auxiliary markers, demonstrating how hunters can augment efforts to detect tagged wildlife. Cameras also documented elusive predators (e.g., wolves [Canis lupus]) and a seasonality of scavenging among American black bears (Ursus americanus). At 42% of the sites, ≥1 cervid investigated the carrion within 1 m, a behavior that may transmit the prions associated with chronic wasting disease. Hunters are willing and competent citizen scientists that can help generate wildlife observations at a broad spatial scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Where agricultural land use and biodiversity conservation values overlap, conservation science has tended to focus on the challenges posed by land ownership fragmentation. However, the dynamics of land concentration also affect rural landscapes and economies upon which biodiversity conservation increasingly depends. In this study, we provide a methodological approach to measuring concentration using parcel-level data to generate a description of private landownership trends at the boundary of the Northern Rockies and the Northern Great Plains, two ecoregions of global conservation significance. Across our 25m-acre study region in Montana, USA concentration in large land ownership increased by 7 percent between 2005 and 2018. Growth of a county's largest landholding through the agglomeration of properties into a single mega-estate emerges as a recurring trend. Other drivers contribute to concentration, suggesting a mix of conservation opportunities and challenges that merits further research and consideration by academic and resource management stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ungulate behavior is often characterized as balancing selection for forage and avoidance of predation risk. Within partially migratory ungulate populations, this balancing occurs across multiple spatial scales, potentially resulting in different exposure to costs and benefits between migrants and residents. We assessed how availability and selection of forage and risk from predators varied between summer ranges of migrant and resident mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus; a species in which individual migratory strategies are generally fixed for life) in 3 study areas in western Montana, USA, during summers 2017–2019. We hypothesized that mule deer would face a tradeoff between selecting forage and avoiding predation risk, and that migration and residency would pose contrasting availability of forage and risk at a broad (summer range) spatial scale. We hypothesized deer exposed to lower forage at a given spatial scale would compensate for reduced availability by increasing selection of forage at the cost of reduced avoidance of predators, a mechanism whereby migrants and residents could potentially achieve similar exposure to forage despite disparate availability. We compared the availability of forage (kcal/m2) and predation risk from wolves (Canis lupus) and mountain lions (Puma concolor) between summer ranges of each migratory strategy, then assessed how selection for those factors at the home range (second order) and within‐home range (third order) scales varied using resource selection functions (RSFs). As forage availability increased among mule deer summer ranges and individual home ranges, selection for forage decreased at the second‐order (P = 0.052) and third‐order (P = 0.081) scales, respectively, but avoidance of predators varied weakly. In 1 study area, summer range of residents contained lower forage and higher risk than summer range of migrants, but residents compensated for this disadvantage through stronger selection of forage and avoidance of risk at finer spatial scales. In the other 2 study areas, summer range of migrants contained lower forage and higher risk than residents, but migrants did not compensate through stronger selection for beneficial resources. The majority of mule deer in our study system were migratory, though the benefits of migration were unclear, suggesting partial migration may persist in populations even when exposure to forage and predation risk appears unequal between strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human‐wildlife conflicts are widespread around the world and result in property damage, disease spillover, financial loss, and decreased tolerance of wildlife. Increasing elk (Cervus canadensis) populations and land‐use changes in the western United States are challenging resource managers tasked with managing conflict. Lethal and non‐lethal management actions are commonly used to remove elk from conflict zones where they are not desired. We used radio‐collar location data collected from female elk in 2 study areas in Montana, USA, from 2017–2020 to evaluate population‐ and individual‐level responses to management actions (i.e., hunting, hazing) and environmental factors (i.e., weather, season, time of day). First, we used a generalized linear model with a logit link to evaluate the effects of hunting, hazing, time period, seasonality, and weather on the proportion of collared elk that used a conflict zone. Second, we used an ordinary linear model to assess the influence of hunting, hazing, seasonality, and weather on the duration of time that individual elk remained away from conflict zones. The proportion of elk using conflict zones was reduced by hunting, modestly reduced by hazing and increasing snowpack for 1 study area, increased at night, and decreased by a seasonal trend across months. The time individual elk remained away from conflict zones increased with the number of hazing events that occurred during an event and showed a modest seasonal trend increasing across months. For 1 study area, time away increased with the number of hunting days during an event and increasing snowpack, but the increase was biologically trivial. Our results indicate mixed responses of elk to hunting and hazing actions and provide evidence that management actions can influence elk use of conflict areas. Agencies trying to reduce conflicts may want to consider a combination of hunting and hazing, while accounting for site‐specific characteristics to keep elk away from conflict zones. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. : Management hazing used to reduce wildlife conflict was most effective when applied with high frequency, and hunting was more effective than hazing in minimizing elk use of conflict zones. Managers trying to reduce conflict should increase the frequency of actions and consider site‐specific characteristics, such as topography, matrix of tolerance and conflict zones, and irrigated fields or feedlines, that may influence the efficacy of management actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A respiratory disease epizootic at the National Bison Range (NBR) in Montana in 2016–2017 caused an 85% decline in the bighorn sheep population, documented by observations of its unmarked but individually identifiable members, the subjects of an ongoing long‐term study. The index case was likely one of a small group of young bighorn sheep on a short‐term exploratory foray in early summer of 2016. Disease subsequently spread through the population, with peak mortality in September and October and continuing signs of respiratory disease and sporadic mortality of all age classes through early July 2017. Body condition scores and clinical signs suggested that the disease affected ewe groups before rams, although by the end of the epizootic, ram mortality (90% of 71) exceeded ewe mortality (79% of 84). Microbiological sampling 10 years to 3 months prior to the epizootic had documented no evidence of infection or exposure to Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae at NBR, but during the epizootic, a single genetic strain of M. ovipneumoniae was detected in affected animals. Retrospective screening of domestic sheep flocks near the NBR identified the same genetic strain in one flock, presumptively the source of the epizootic infection. Evidence of fatal lamb pneumonia was observed during the first two lambing seasons following the epizootic but was absent during the third season following the death of the last identified M. ovipneumoniae carrier ewe. Monitoring of life‐history traits prior to the epizootic provided no evidence that environmentally and/or demographically induced nutritional or other stress contributed to the epizootic. Furthermore, the epizootic occurred despite proactive management actions undertaken to reduce risk of disease and increase resilience in this population. This closely observed bighorn sheep epizootic uniquely illustrates the natural history of the disease including the (presumptive) source of spillover, course, severity, and eventual pathogen clearance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scavengers likely play an important role in ecosystem energy flow as well as disease transmission, but whether they facilitate or reduce disease transmission is often unknown. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, scavengers are likely to reduce the transmission and subsequent spread of brucellosis within and between livestock and elk by consuming infectious abortion materials, thereby removing the infectious agent from the landscape. We used remote cameras to monitor the time to removal of simulated abortion materials by scavengers at 264 sites from February to June in 2017 and 2018 and assessed the effects of habitat and land management on time to removal in southwest Montana. Time to removal of fetal materials decreased in grassland habitats (x̄ = 2.9 d, credible interval = [1.8–5.0]) in comparison to sagebrush habitats (x̄ = 5.4 d [3.4–9.3]) and forest habitats (x̄ = 5.2 d [3.3–9.0]). In addition, there was an 88% probability that time to removal of fetal materials was slower at sites where mammalian scavengers were actively reduced (x̄ = 6.5 d [3.4–12.8]) compared to sites with no scavenger reduction (x̄ = 4.1 d [2.3–7.8]). Our research indicates that if elk and livestock are commingling during the brucellosis risk period, there is a 90% probability that abortion materials will be removed by scavengers within 16 d across all sites. Coyotes, red foxes, golden and bald eagles, Corvus spp., and turkey vultures were the dominant scavengers, removing 90% of the fetal materials. Actions to maintain the breadth and diversity of scavengers on the landscape are potential management options that could reduce disease transmission risk to livestock in a system where the wildlife reservoir is difficult to address. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conserving large carnivores while keeping people safe depends on finding means for peaceful coexistence. Although large carnivore populations are generally declining globally, some populations are increasing, causing greater overlap with humans and increasing potential for conflict. One method of reducing conflict with large carnivores is to secure attractants like garbage and livestock. This method is effective when implemented; however, implementation requires a change in human behavior. Human‐wildlife interaction is a public good collective action problem where solutions require contributions from many and individual actions have effects on others. We used the collective interest model to investigate how individual and collective factors work in concert to influence landowner attractant securing behavior in Montana, USA, in black (Ursus americanus) and grizzly bear (U. arctos) range. We used data from a mail‐back survey to develop logistic regression models testing the relative effects of collective and individual factors on landowners' attractant securing behaviors. The most important factor was whether individuals had spoken to a wildlife professional, a reflection of social coordination and pressure. Other collective factors (e.g., social norms [i.e., expectations and behaviors of peers] and the existence of discussion networks [i.e., how much social influence an individual has]) were equally important as individual factors (e.g., beliefs, age, gender) for influencing attractant securing behavior among Montana landowners. This research suggests pathways for wildlife managers and outreach coordinators to increase attractant securing behavior by emphasizing collective factors, such as social norms, rather than appealing exclusively to individual factors, such as risk perception of large carnivores. Furthermore, wildlife agencies would be justified in increasing their efforts to connect with landowners in person and to connect with members of the public who play an important role in discussion networks. This research demonstrates that, even on private lands, collective interests may be a missing and important piece of the puzzle for encouraging voluntary attractant securing behavior and improving wildlife‐human coexistence. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. : Collective social factors, like social norms, influence uptake in human behaviors to secure items, like garbage and livestock, that can attract large carnivores. Managers seeking to encourage the public to secure carnivore attractants as a method for preventing conflict and improving coexistence with wildlife may benefit from applying collective action insights in their messaging and outreach strategies. For example, outreach campaigns that include a normative appeal, such as information about the expectations and behaviors of one's peers, may be more effective than campaigns that include carnivore risk information alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across North America, many ungulate species that experienced historic population declines and range contractions are now broadly distributed across their native ranges after the implementation of successful restoration programs. The use of translocation continues to serve as an important restoration tool and is often informed through habitat models used to identify potential translocation areas based on biotic and abiotic landscape characteristics. Within the context of partially migratory wildlife populations, resident and migrant population segments can select for varying habitat characteristics, yet these population segments are often pooled when building habitat models. We used a large spatial dataset collected from eight bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) populations to build separate winter and summer resource selection models for migrant and resident animals with the purposes of (1) characterizing differences in seasonal selection patterns between resident and migrant population segments and (2) generating broad spatial predictions of bighorn sheep habitat to inform future translocations across western Montana, USA. Lastly, we used the model to inform two potential management scenarios, first to establish a new population in an unoccupied area and second to expand the distribution of existing populations through intra‐mountain translocations. Selection patterns were generally similar among migrants and residents, especially in winter. Summer selection patterns varied between the two behaviors, with migrants selecting for higher elevations and residents selecting for lower elevations. Throughout the western Montana prediction area, bighorn sheep habitat was centered around mountain areas in all seasons. In the first management scenario, our model predicted that adequate resident and migratory bighorn sheep habitat existed in the restoration area, thus justifying the use of either resident or migrant source populations in translocation. In the second management scenario, our model predicted that there was broad potential for translocations into unoccupied areas adjacent to the current bighorn sheep distribution in western Montana. The behavior‐specific approach to predicting bighorn sheep seasonal habitat captures the specific habitat characteristics of multiple migratory behaviors and may help to inform targeted and effective translocation programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Northern Rockies of the United States, predators like wolves (Canis lupus) and mountain lions (Puma concolor) have been implicated in fluctuations or declines in populations of game species like elk (Cervus canadensis) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). In particular, local distributions of these predators may affect ungulate behavior, use of space, and dynamics. Our goal was to develop generalizable predictions of habitat selection by wolves and mountain lions across western Montana. We hypothesized both predator species would select habitat that maximized their chances of encountering and killing ungulates and that minimized their chances of encountering humans. We assessed habitat selection by these predators during summer using within-home range (3rd order) resource selection functions (RSFs) in multiple study areas throughout western Montana, and tested how generalizable RSF predictions were by applying them to out-of-sample telemetry data from separate study areas. Selection for vegetation cover-types varied substantially among wolves in different study areas. Nonetheless, our predictions of 3rd order selection by wolves were highly generalizable across different study areas. Wolves consistently selected simple topography where ungulate prey may be more susceptible to their cursorial hunting mode. Topographic features may serve as better proxies of predation risk by wolves than vegetation cover-types. Predictions of mountain lion distribution were less generalizable. Use of rugged terrain by mountain lions varied across ecosystem-types, likely because mountain lions targeted the habitats of different prey species in each study area. Our findings suggest that features that facilitate the hunting mode of a predator (i.e. simple topography for cursorial predators and hiding cover for stalking predators) may be more generalizable predictors of their habitat selection than features associated with local prey densities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historical distribution of Fishers throughout Montana and the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States is poorly understood, and most Fishers in Montana appear to be descendants of translocated animals originating from the midwestern United States and British Columbia; however, a genotype that is unique and native to the Northern Rockies of Idaho and Montana exists in west-central Montana. Predictions based on Idaho models depict potential suitable habitat for Fishers throughout the Cabinet Mountains of northwestern Montana, yet distribution, occupancy, and population status is currently unknown for these Fishers. We conducted the 1st comprehensive monitoring of Fishers in the Cabinet Mountains of Montana using baited camera/DNA stations. We detected Fishers at 7 out of 21 cells, which resulted in a 0.43 probability that Fishers occupied a grid cell. Detection probability was low. Genetic analysis revealed a minimum population count of at least 4 individual Fishers in the study area, but all individuals successfully identified were males and of midwestern genetic origin. The low number of Fisher detections may indeed reflect low abundance of Fisher. We recommend future multi-season monitoring over a longer period to increase precision of occupancy estimates, and additional research is needed to evaluate the lack of female detections. We also recommend maintaining a closed trapping season on Fishers, until data exist to document a population large enough to sustain harvest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Rocky Mountains, bighorn sheep restoration has been only marginally effective; this iconic wilderness species currently exists at a fraction of their historic abundance and often in fragmented and small populations. To inform bighorn sheep conservation and restoration efforts, it is critical to understand sources of variation in key vital rates. Our objectives were to characterize the spatiotemporal variations and factors affecting survival and pregnancy rates of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) using data from 19 bighorn sheep populations in Montana and Wyoming that occupied diverse landscapes ranging from the Northern Great Plains to the Rocky Mountains. We used a hierarchical modeling approach to estimate survival and pregnancy rates of adult females and identify the important intrinsic and environmental factors affecting these vital rates. Survival of prime‐aged animals was relatively high and stable, and pregnancy rates for prime‐aged animals showed more overall variation in response to intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Summer growing season, as indexed by integrated NDVI, positively influenced the probability of pregnancy and winter survival. This highlights the important relationship between summer growing season conditions and bighorn sheep physiological status. An index of mountain lion population abundance was related weakly to winter survival of bighorn sheep, with mountain lion abundance on winter ranges negatively affecting winter survival. Our results regarding the distribution of the estimated probabilities of pregnancy and survival, and the identification of factors associated with regional variability in these vital rates provide a foundation for understanding the dynamics of bighorn sheep populations in the Rocky Mountains. The importance of summer growing season conditions suggests management efforts should focus on maintaining and improving nutritional resources on bighorn sheep summer ranges, in efforts to enhance the condition of animals entering the breeding season and nutrient‐limited winter season. Although we document nontrivial changes in both pregnancy and winter survival rates associated with environmental variation, our results broadly support the dominant paradigm of ungulate demography insofar as survival rates of adult females were relatively higher and had less variation than pregnancy rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthrax, caused by the spore‐forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis, is a zoonosis affecting animals and humans globally. In the United States, anthrax outbreaks occur in wildlife and livestock, with frequent outbreaks in native and exotic wildlife species in Texas, livestock outbreaks in the Dakotas, and sporadic mixed outbreaks in Montana. Understanding where pathogen and host habitat selection overlap is essential for anthrax management. Resource selection and habitat use of ungulates may be sex‐specific and lead to differential anthrax exposure risks across the landscape for males and females. We evaluated female elk (Cervus canadensis) resource selection in the same study areas as male elk in a previous anthrax risk study to identify risk of anthrax transmission to females and compare transmission risk between females and males. We developed a generalized linear mixed‐effect model to estimate resource selection for female elk in southwest Montana during the June to August anthrax transmission risk period. We then predicted habitat selection of female and male elk across the study area and compared selection with the distribution of anthrax risk to identify spatial distributions of potential anthrax exposure for the male and female elk. Female and male elk selected different resources during the anthrax risk period, which resulted in different anthrax exposure areas for females and males. The sex‐specific resource selection and habitat use could infer different areas of risk for anthrax transmission, which can improve anthrax and wildlife management and have important public health and economic implications. © 2020 The Wildlife Society. Female and male elk are under different resource selection pressures during the anthrax risk period, which resulted in different potential anthrax exposure areas. The areas highly selected by male and female elk overlapping with anthrax areas should be prioritized for carcass detection and anthrax surveillance efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts to recover Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) throughout western North America have had limited success with the majority of current populations remaining in small and isolated areas on a fraction of their historical range. Prairie environments with rugged topography throughout the Northern Great Plains ecoregion were historically occupied by relatively robust bighorn sheep populations. We predicted there is likely unrealized potential habitat for restoring bighorn sheep to these areas; however, relatively little attention has been devoted to identifying habitat in unoccupied prairie regions. We used global positioning system (GPS)‐collar data collected from 43 female bighorn sheep in 2 populations located in the eastern Montana, USA, portion of the Northern Great Plains during 2014–2018 to estimate a population‐level annual resource selection model and identify the important factors affecting bighorn sheep resource selection. We extrapolated model predictions across eastern Montana's prairie region and identified potential habitat to understand restoration potential and assist with future translocations of bighorn sheep. Resource selection of bighorn sheep was most strongly associated with terrain slope and ruggedness, tree canopy cover, and a normalized difference vegetation index metric. Within currently unoccupied areas of the historical range, the model extrapolation predicted 7,211 km2 of habitat, with most owned and managed by private landowners (44%), Bureau of Land Management (33%), and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (15%). Our results provide an empirical evaluation of landscape covariates influencing resource selection of bighorn sheep occupying prairie environments and provide a habitat model that may be generalizable to other areas in the Northern Great Plains ecoregion. We demonstrate substantial potential for restoration opportunities of bighorn sheep in the Northern Great Plains ecoregion. Broad restoration of bighorn sheep across the ecoregion would likely require strong collaboration among and between public resource managers, private landowners, and livestock producers given the heterogeneous land ownership patterns, management strategies, and domestic sheep distributions. © 2020 The Wildlife Society. We characterized and defined bighorn sheep habitat in the eastern Montana, USA, region of the Northern Great Plains and predicted habitat throughout currently unoccupied areas within and outside the historical bighorn sheep range. Our results highlight potential for bighorn sheep restoration within a prairie region and provide a predictive habitat model that could be used to identify potential translocation sites in similar environments in the Northern Great Plains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of conserving migratory populations is recognized across a variety of ungulate taxa, yet the demographic benefits of migration remain uncertain for ungulate populations that exhibit partial migration. We hypothesized that migratory pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) would experience greater survival compared to residents by moving longer distances to avoid severe winter weather and access higher quality forage. We used a Bayesian time‐to‐event approach to analyze the fates of 175 radio‐collared adult female pronghorn monitored over 8 biological years (2004–2011) in the Northern Sagebrush Steppe ecosystem. Annual survivorship of migratory pronghorn was 7% higher on average compared to residents but not statistically different. Migratory pronghorn had higher survivorship in summer and winter compared to residents, and few mortalities were observed during the short autumn and spring migration periods. Mortality risk for both movement tactics intensified under more severe winter weather; winter weather severity alone best explained annual pronghorn mortality risk. The top model predicted survival rates to decline on average by 56% over the range of observed winter climatic conditions. To minimize human impacts to pronghorn during extreme climatic events, we recommend working with transportation departments and land managers to enhance pronghorn crossings of roads and railroads, and landholders to modify fences to wildlife‐friendly standards. © 2020 The Authors. Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals, LLC on behalf of The Wildlife Society. Annual survivorship of migratory pronghorn was higher on average compared to residents, and the mortality risk for both movement tactics intensified under more severe winter weather. We provide recommendations to reduce anthropogenic mortality and maintain landscape permeability to conserve pronghorn that depend on long‐distance migration for persistence at the northern periphery of their range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecological theory and empirical studies have demonstrated population‐level demographic benefits resulting from a diversity of migratory behaviors with important implications for ecology, conservation, and evolution of migratory organisms. Nevertheless, evaluation of migratory portfolios (i.e., the variation in migratory behaviors across space and time among individuals within populations) has received relatively little attention in migratory ungulates, where research has focused largely on the dichotomous behaviors (e.g., resident and migrant) of partially migratory populations. Using GPS data from 361 female bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) across 17 (4 restored, 6 augmented, 7 native) populations in Montana and Wyoming, USA, we (1) characterized migratory portfolios based on behavioral and spatial migratory characteristics and (2) evaluated the relative influence of landscape attributes and management histories on migratory diversity. Native populations, which had been extant on the landscape for many generations, had more diverse migratory portfolios, higher behavioral switching rates, reduced seasonal range fidelity, and broad dispersion of individuals across summer and winter ranges. In contrast, restored populations with an abbreviated history on the landscape were largely non‐migratory with a narrow portfolio of migratory behaviors, less behavioral switching, higher fidelity to seasonal ranges, and less dispersion on summer and winter ranges. Augmented populations were more variable and contained characteristics of both native and restored populations. Differences in migratory diversity among populations were associated with management histories (e.g., restored, augmented, or native). Landscape characteristics such as the duration and regularity of green‐up, human landscape alterations, topography, and snow gradients were not strongly associated with migratory diversity. We suggest a two‐pronged approach to restoring migratory portfolios in ungulates that first develops behavior‐specific habitat models and then places individuals with known migratory behaviors into unoccupied areas in an effort to bolster migratory portfolios in restored populations, potentially with synergistic benefits associated with variation among individuals and resulting portfolio effects. Management efforts to restore diverse migratory portfolios may increase the abundance, resilience, and long‐term viability of ungulate populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding relationships between animals and their habitat is a central goal in ecology with important implications for conservation. Misidentified habitat requirements can have serious repercussions because land protection or reintroductions might occur in less than optimal habitat. Studies of resource selection have greatly facilitated an understanding of ecological relationships but can be improved when vital yet infrequently utilized habitat features are more fully described. A critical element for many prey species is escape terrain or some other form of refuge to avoid predation. Mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) are well known for their use of cliffs to avoid predation, but a survey of the literature revealed at least twelve different approximations of goat escape terrain, ranging from > 25· to > 50· slopes. Here, we seek to (1) enhance estimates of mountain goat escape terrain and antipredator behavior, and (2) highlight the limitations of the assumption that the time an animal spends in an area is proportional to importance. To improve estimates of goat escape terrain, we conducted field work across two years (2014·15) in Glacier National Park, Montana USA and manipulated apparent predation risk by exposing mountain goats to a threatening simulated grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) treatment and a non-threatening ungulate (control) treatment. Mountain goats moved in response to the simulated bear but not in response to the simulated ungulate, with shorter latencies to move for subjects in larger groups and at shorter distances to the simulated threat. Through a used-unused resource selection function we tested 22 landscape variables to describe the use of escape terrain. Proximity to slopes greater than 60· best explained the locations to which mountain goats fled after exposure to the simulated bear, and the average slope of these escape locations was 56.5· (·14.1 S.D.). Our results suggest that mountain goat escape terrain be considered at slopes of 60· as a minimum because our simulated threat did not include pursuit of goats and, thus, slopes of 60· are likely underestimates of actual escape terrain. Additionally, because direct interactions between carnivores and goats seldom occur, serious escape terrain is infrequently used. Past estimates of escape may have miscalculated the slopes which goats select for in response to predation risk. Based on experimental approaches in the wild, we suggest that anti-predator behavior should be included in studies of resource selection when the goal is to consider habitat as a predictor for conservation success. Finally, we discuss evidence suggesting a past mountain goat introduction failed due to lack of adequate escape terrain and subsequent recolonization of a predator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) restoration continues to be a challenge throughout western North America despite nearly a century of efforts dedicated to the species' recovery. Though bighorn sheep restoration may be constrained by several environmental factors and behavioral tendencies, areas with unrealized restoration potential may exist if novel restoration strategies are considered. We used global positioning system (GPS) location data from 27 female bighorn sheep within the southern portion of the Madison Range in southwest Montana, USA, 2015–2017, to develop and validate winter and summer habitat models, which we extrapolated throughout the entire Madison Range to identify potential seasonal habitat. We estimated potential bighorn sheep minimum population estimates within the extrapolation area by linking our top‐ranked winter habitat model to population count data. During summer, female bighorn sheep selected areas characterized by rugged and steep terrain, reduced canopy cover, southwestern aspects, and ridgelines. During winter, female bighorn sheep selected areas characterized by low elevations, southwestern aspects, steep slopes, reduced canopy cover, ridgelines, high normalized difference vegetation index amplitude, and areas close to steep terrain. Predicted summer habitat was concentrated along the high‐elevation ridgelines associated with steep slopes and reduced canopy cover. Predicted winter habitat occurred in a non‐contiguous distribution primarily along the low‐elevation, southwest‐facing aspects along the western slopes of the Madison Range. Our results suggest that the Madison Range may be capable of supporting 780–1,730 animals, which is 2–4 times the number of bighorn sheep currently observed within the range. Further, our findings provide managers with a quantification of female bighorn sheep habitat and suggests that a strategy focused on establishing a metapopulation through a series of within‐range translocations may enhance bighorn sheep restoration. We suggest that similar restoration opportunities may be common in other unoccupied areas of bighorn sheep historical range. © 2020 The Wildlife Society. We constructed seasonal habitat models for female bighorn sheep within the Madison Range, southwest Montana, USA, and generated minimum population estimates within the extrapolation area. Our extrapolations of predicted habitat suggest the potential for a broader distribution and a higher abundance of bighorn sheep throughout the Madison Range. Our results provide managers with a useful tool to guide and monitor restoration efforts within the Madison Range, but also serve as a case study evaluating the restoration potential within mountain ranges containing established, but non‐expanding populations of bighorn sheep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae; pine beetle) outbreaks in the western United States have affected nearly 18 million ha of pine (Pinus spp.) forest and are unprecedented in spatial extent, severity, and duration, yet little is known about wildlife responses to large‐scale insect outbreaks. Elk (Cervus canadensis) are important wildlife whose dominant management paradigm on public lands has focused on providing security habitat to increase survival during hunting seasons and to maintain elk presence on public lands to promote hunter opportunity. To assess the effect of pine beetles and associated changes in forest structure on elk security, we used a time series to characterize canopy cover pre‐ and post‐pine beetle outbreak, characterized relative canopy cover among the dominant forest types in the study area post‐pine beetle outbreak, and used global positioning system location data from male and female elk to define habitat relationships and security during the archery and rifle hunting seasons. Our study area was within the Elkhorn Mountains of southwest Montana, USA, 2015–2017, which experienced 80% mortality of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests during a pine beetle outbreak that peaked in 2008. We observed an 8.5% reduction in canopy cover within pine beetle‐infested lodgepole pine forests, yet canopy cover remained relatively high among other forest types post‐outbreak. The top‐ranked habitat security models contained positive relationships with canopy cover, distance to motorized routes, terrain ruggedness, and slope with few notable differences among sexes and seasons. Across sexes and seasons, 75% and 50% of elk use was within areas with average canopy cover values ≥31 ± 6.65 (SD)% and ≥53 ± 5.7% that were an average of ≥2,072 ± 187.93 m and ≥3,496 ± 157.32 m from a motorized route, respectively. Therefore, we recommend fall elk security be defined as areas that meet these criteria for minimum canopy cover and distance from motorized routes in the Elkhorn Mountains and in other landscapes with similar forest characteristics and hunting pressures. Although we observed expected reductions in canopy cover within pine beetle‐infested forests, defoliation alone did not appear to negatively affect elk security or reduce canopy cover below our management recommendations. Nonetheless, because of the prevalence of standing dead trees in our study area, we recommend future work that investigates the relationships with pine beetle‐infested areas post‐blowdown because changes in ground structure and costs of locomotion may affect elk habitat and security. © 2019 The Authors. Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of The Wildlife Society. We used a canopy cover time series and global positioning system location data to characterize the loss of security cover resulting from mountain pine beetle infestation, and behavioral responses by male and female elk in the Elkhorn Mountains of southwest Montana, USA. We observed an 8.5% reduction in canopy cover within lodgepole pine forests infested by mountain pine beetles, yet canopy cover remained relatively high among other forest types post‐outbreak resulting in continued use by elk on lands open to public hunting during the hunting seasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recognition that beavers are integral components of stream ecosystems has resulted in an increase in beaver‐mediated habitat restoration projects. Beaver restoration projects are frequently implemented in degraded stream systems with little or no beaver activity. However, selection of restoration sites is often based on habitat suitability research comparing well‐established beaver colonies to unoccupied stream sections or abandoned colonies. Because beavers dramatically alter areas they occupy, assessing habitat conditions at active colonies may over‐emphasize habitat characteristics that are modified by beaver activity. During 2015–2017, we conducted beaver activity surveys on streams in the upper Missouri River watershed in southwest Montana, United States, to investigate habitat selection by beavers starting new colonies in novel areas. We compared new colony locations in unmodified stream segments to unsettled segments to evaluate conditions that promoted colonization. Newly settled stream segments had relatively low gradients (β ± SE = −0.72 ± 0.27), narrow channels (β = −1.31 ± 0.46), high channel complexity (β = 0.76 ± 0.42), high canopy cover of woody riparian vegetation (β = 0.56 ± 0.21), and low‐lying areas directly adjacent to the stream (β = 0.36 ± 0.24), where β denotes covariate effect sizes. Habitat selection patterns differed between our new settlement site analysis and an analysis of occupied versus unoccupied stream segments, suggesting that assessing habitat suitability based on active colonies may result in misidentification of suitable site conditions for beaver restoration. Our research provides recommendations for beaver restoration practitioners to select restoration sites that will have the highest probability of successful colony establishment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surveying wildlife communities provides data for informing conservation and management decisions that affect multiple species. Autonomous recording units (ARUs) can efficiently gather community data for a variety of taxa, but generally require software algorithms to classify each recorded call to a species. Species classification errors are possible during this process and result in both false‐negative and false‐positive detections. Available approaches for analysing ARU data do not model the species classification probabilities, meaning erroneous detections are attributed to an omnibus source instead of the presence of another species. Additionally, counts of call recordings for each species are often summarized to binary detection data for analyses. Expanding statistical models to capture these nuances of ARU data would allow for improved inferences about occupancy and relative activity.Motivated by bat acoustic surveys, we developed a model to analyse counts of call recordings from multiple species simultaneously while accounting for species classification errors. Our model expands on previously developed false‐positive occupancy models to better describe acoustic data. We used simulations to compare our model to other false‐positive occupancy models for an example scenario with ARU data from two species. We also analyse acoustic data for eight bat species in Montana using our model.In simulations, single‐species models resulted in biased estimates of occupancy and relative activity because they failed to associate false positives with the presence of the second species. Models analysing binary observations ignored available information on relative activity and led to less precise estimates. Applying our model to bat acoustic data from Montana allowed for species‐specific estimates of occupancy and relative activity. This analysis illustrates the flexibility in our model framework while also highlighting the assumptions and data requirements for implementation. Specifically, additional information on the species classification probabilities is needed and we discuss considerations for reliably estimating these parameters.Directly modelling the species classification probabilities allows for improved ecological inferences for both occupancy and relative activity using community ARU data. Our statistical framework helps address the challenges posed by acoustic data, allowing ecologists to better utilize this technology to monitor wildlife communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forestry practices such as prescribed fire and wildfire management can modify the nutritional resources of ungulates across broad landscapes. To evaluate the influences of fire and forest management on ungulate nutrition, we measured and compared forage quality and abundance among a range of land cover types and fire histories within 3 elk ranges in Montana. We used historical fire data to assess fire-related variations in elk forage from 1900 to 2015. Fire affected summer forage more strongly than winter forage. Between 1900–1990 and 1990–2015, elk summer range burned by wildfire increased 242–1772 per cent, whereas the area on winter range burned by wildfire was low across all decades. Summer forage quality peaked in recently burned forests and decreased as time since burn increased. Summer forage abundance peaked in dry forests burned 6–15 years prior and mesic forests burned within 5 years. Forests recently burned by wildfire had higher summer forage quality and herbaceous abundance than those recently burned by prescribed fire. These results suggest that the nutritional carrying capacity for elk varies temporally with fire history and management practices. Our methods for characterizing nutritional resources provide a relatively straightforward approach for evaluating nutritional adequacy and tracking changes in forage associated with disturbances such as fire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]