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Arc-related volcanism results from the interplay of magmatic processes occurring in trans-crustal systems that consolidate over time in a given location. Trans-crustal systems comprise extensive networks of magma reservoirs and conduits at different depths, wherein melts cyclically differentiate and segregate before reaching the surface. The study of these systems provides valuable insights into crustal-scale phenomena, such as the evolution of the continental crust and the formation of metallogenic regions. In this study, we address the trans-crustal magmatic evolution of lower Miocene magmatism parental to several intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits in the eastern Sierra Madre del Sur igneous province, southern Mexico. Using a multi-methodological approach, we document changes over ca. 1.1 Myr in the magmatic system that fed andesitic-to-felsic volcanism in this region. We employ whole-rock REE ratios and λ parameters—which are used to quantify the shape of a REE pattern—to track the involvement of pressure-sensitive minerals in the deep-crustal magmatic evolution. The andesitic rocks consist of lava flows, porphyries, and dikes that collectively show REE patterns suggestive of control by fractionated or residual (i.e. in crustal melting) amphibole and/or clinopyroxene. In contrast, the felsic rocks consist of rhyolitic–dacitic ignimbrites, domes, and dikes that show contrasting REE patterns suggestive of control by plagioclase, clinopyroxene, amphibole, and/or garnet. The distinct pressure-sensitive mineral assemblages in the andesitic and felsic rocks indicate that the locus of deep-crustal magma evolution varied within the middle–lower crust. These magmas were episodically injected into ephemeral shallow crustal reservoirs (shortly?) before being erupted, inducing a progressive thermomechanical maturation of the middle–upper crust. Meanwhile, low degrees of crustal assimilation occurred as recorded by Mesozoic inherited zircon ages and Sr–Nd–Pb radiogenic isotopes. An extensive middle–lower crustal magma evolution has been linked to the formation of porphyry Cu deposits (i.e. 'fertile' magmatism). Given that intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits may be genetically linked with porphyry Cu deposits, the documented processes could have contributed to the formation of epithermal deposits in the region. However, magmatic fertility proxies resemble those from infertile magmas worldwide. Since these proxies have been exclusively applied to porphyry-type deposits, our results highlight the importance of developing new geochemical exploration tools applicable to a wider range of ore deposits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Santa María and Antares Zn-Pb(-Ag) skarn deposits in the Velardeña Mining District are located in central–NW Mexico. They lie 470 m apart along the contact between Oligocene felsic intrusions and Cretaceous limestones, and were developed during prograde, retrograde, post-ore (Santa María), and late stages. Firstly, the prograde stage was formed by fluids at ~ 600 °C and 15 wt% NaCl equiv., and consists of garnet + wollastonite ± clinopyroxene and biotite ± K-feldspar assemblages. Secondly, the retrograde/ore stage was formed by fluids at 300–500 °C with salinities of 20–30 wt% CaCl2 (Santa María) and > 40 wt% NaCl equiv. (Antares). It comprises assemblages of chlorite, amphibole, epidote, calcite, scapolite, quartz, sericite, adularia, fluorite, and muscovite associated with sphalerite, pyrite, galena, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, and Pb-Bi-Sb sulfosalts. Thirdly, the post-ore stage was formed by fluids at ~ 400 °C and 20–30 wt.% CaCl2 and comprises poorly mineralized calcite veins. Fourthly, the late stage was formed by fluids at < 300 °C and 20–30 wt.% CaCl2 (Santa María) and ~ 15 wt% NaCl equiv. (Antares), and crystallized tetrahedrite-group minerals and pyrite + marcasite. δ18Ofluid between ~ 14‰ and 23‰ at Santa María and between ~ 12‰ and 17‰ at Antares show a less-modified magmatic affinity for mineralizing fluids at Antares; δ13Cfluid between 0‰ and –6‰ register recycling of sedimentary C. Moreover, sulfides with δ34SVCDT between –3‰ and 2‰ reveal a magmatic source for S. Altogether, these data suggest that, at Santa María, magmatic-derived fluids actively interacted with the wall rocks, whereas at Antares the fluid-rock interaction was milder. In both deposits, metal deposition was triggered by the cooling and neutralization of ore-bearing fluids with carbonate rocks. Our 40Ar/39Ar dates for adularia of ca. 37.5 Ma place the deposits within the Eocene–early Miocene metallogenetic epoch of central–NW Mexico, during which other world-class skarn-epithermal systems were emplaced (e.g., Concepción del Oro and Mazapil-Peñasquito). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary objective of this article is to introduce a physicochemical model along with a computational algorithm that is valuable for quantifying the occurrence of silica scaling and fouling within geothermal production wells. This model utilizes two-phase flow parameters, temperature and pressure profiles, as well as brine composition to forecast the timing of production pipe constriction caused by amorphous silica deposition over time. The model is applicable to systems with temperatures ranging from 270°C to 305°C, vapor pressures ranging from 55 to 93 bars, and enthalpies ranging from 1189 kJ/kg to 1400 kJ/kg. The predictive model was calibrated using data gathered from six distinct wells within the Los Humeros geothermal field in Mexico, and subsequently, it was applied to forecast outcomes in two additional wells. When the conditions of temperature, pressure, and enthalpy remain relatively constant throughout the production process, the model developed in this study accurately predicts the times at which a certain percentage of pipe sealing occurs in wells with high volumetric fractions of liquid (el>0.5) and temperatures between 270°C and 305°C. The prediction error is less than 3%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Utility of the geothermal surface manifestations (GSMs; thermal springs, geysers, fumaroles, and zones of hydrothermal alteration) in the studies related to the geothermal exploration is widely recognized. The identification of hydrothermally altered rocks and zones of alteration is very important because their presence indicates the type and size of the geothermal reservoir and existing thermal conditions. The use of traditional methods (i.e., geochemistry, mineralogy, and petrography) requires expensive equipment, time-consuming, and laborious sample preparation methods. Some of the rock magnetic parameters, like magnetic susceptibility (χlf) and percentage of frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility (χfd%), are potential to become effective additional tools in identification of the hydrothermal rocks during the initial stages of geothermal exploration. Three chemical methods, Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), loss-on-ignition (LOI), and the binary plot (CaO + Na2O + K2O) vs. (Fe2O3 + MnO + MgO), along with two rock magnetic methods, χlf and the binary plot (χlf vs. χfd%), are applied to nine intensively altered andesite reference rocks. All the five methods have correctly identified that 99 out of the total 350 studied rocks are altered. More altered rocks are distributed surrounding the several faults in the study area. Various faults (e.g., Los Humeros fault and the Loma Blanca fault) favor fluid flow and present strong hydrothermal alteration at the surface. However, there are no altered rocks on the surface region between the E-W trending Las Papas and Las Viboras faults. The presence of only the deeper fluid pathway toward the east in the surroundings of these two faults result into the almost absence of hydrothermal alteration along their strike at the surface. Consequently, there are not many altered rocks observed surroundings these two faults at the surface. These features suggest that the surface hydrothermal alteration at Los Humeros Geothermal Field (LHGF) is controlled by faults. χlf and χfd% are reliable, simple to measure, fast, cost-effective, and have the potential to become reliable additional tools for future exploration studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico includes copious metallic deposits of distinct types that were formed in several tectonothermal events since the Proterozoic. This work integrates a large database of mineral occurrences and deposits in Oaxaca. The 1:850,000 scale metallogenetic map depicts the location of deposits, mining regions, and mining districts on a lithological base, along with a summarized metallogenic history of the state and the distribution of the tectonostratigraphic terranes. We briefly describe the most relevant features of each mineralized area and the characteristics of the metallogenic epochs of Oaxaca. All the geolocation information was organized in GIS format. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tehuitzingo ultramafic body (Acatlán Complex, southern Mexico) is a strongly serpentinized harburgitic body that encloses chromitite bodies and blocks of eclogitic rocks. Hydrous retrograde metamorphism on chromitite bodies resulted in the formation of: i) partly altered chromite characterized by unaltered cores surrounded by Fe2+-rich and Al-depleted porous chromite containing chlorite; ii) porous chromite corresponding to a chromite that was entirely transformed to Fe2+-rich and Al-depleted porous chromite; and iii) zoned chromite formed by modified cores surrounded by Fe3+-rich non-porous chromite and magnetite rims. The content of minor and trace elements (Ga, Ti, Ni, Zn, Co, Mn, V, Sc) in the cores of partly altered chromite preserves the magmatic fingerprint of back-arc-bearing chromitites, while the cores of zoned chromite are enriched in Zn, Co and Mn but depleted in Ga, Ti, Ni and Sc, and display a metamorphic signature. P-T pseudosections performed in the system CrMFASH allow us to constrain the temperature of formation of Fe2+-rich chromite by reaction of magmatic chromite with olivine between 584 and 449 °C; while the new thermodynamic calculations performed in the FMASH system shows that the Fe3+-rich non-porous chromite and magnetite rims in zoned chromites were formed at lower temperatures (i.e. 270–340 ºC and < 20 kbar). Temperatures of alteration obtained using our new thermodynamic model are in agreement with the qualitative estimation that use minor and trace elements in Fe2+-rich chromite (i.e. 560–700 ºC). These temperatures are more restricted than those estimated for chlorite hosted in partly altered (193–481 ºC) and porous chromite (158–255 ºC), and those reported in host serpentinite and associated eclogitic rocks (210–399 ºC). A comparison of P-T conditions estimated by our new thermodynamic models and the distribution of minor and trace elements in the different zones of chromites allow us to infer that the alteration took place during the hydrous retrograde metamorphism, and that the high-pressure metamorphism did not modify the composition of chromites. Thus, the microstructural zoning displayed by chromite grains was formed during the exhumation of a segment of a back-arc-related oceanic lithosphere, at similar temperature conditions than the Tehuitzingo serpentinite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hot springs with associated Mn-Ag mineralization were identified in the intertidal zone of the Bahia Concepcion Bay of the central-eastern Baja California Peninsula. Hot spring activity is related to a system of NW-SE faults that are associated with the opening of the Gulf of California. The hot springs are hosted by Miocene volcanic and volcaniclastic units of the Comondu Group. The maximum discharge temperature recorded is 72 °C, with the pH ranging from 6.2 to 6.5 and salinity values reaching up to 27 g/kg. Veins, stockworks, breccias, crusts, and organosedimentary stromatolites of silica-carbonate and Mn oxides are associated with the hot springs. The Mn oxide and silica deposits show an association with Ag, As, Ba, Ca, Cu, Mg, Pb, Sb, Sr, Tl, V, W, and Zn. Acanthite and native silver occur along with pyrite in a mineral assemblage rich in opal-A, todorokite, romanechite, aragonite, high-Mg calcite, and barite. Three distinct mineral associations characterized by sulfides, sulfates, and oxides are recognized. The silver minerals formed late in the paragenesis. Textural evidence suggests a microbial mediation for the Mn mineral deposition. Pourbaix diagrams for Mn and Ag species were constructed for the physicochemical conditions of the coastal hot springs. These diagrams show that both Mn and Ag minerals are stable at low temperature (65 °C), and near neutral pH, under slightly reducing or oxidizing conditions. The characteristics of the subaerial to shallow submarine hot springs and the results of the geochemical modeling suggest that the hydrothermal system in the Bahia Conception Bay is formed through convection of meteoric waters, intermixed with some saline fluids or seawater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana is the property of Sociedad Geologica Mexicana and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Zn-Pb-Cu(-Ag±Au) San Martín deposit in northwestern Zacatecas is one of the most economically important and biggest skarns in Mexico. Mineral associations in this deposit belong to the sulfide skarn type (with rather "classical" prograde and retrograde zones) and contain peripheral subepithermal to epithermal veins. Re-Os ages were obtained for two molybdenite samples from deep Cu-Zn-Pb±Mo±Bi±Ag retrograde mineralization in these deposits, of 43.7 ± 0.3 and 44.0 ± 0.2 Ma, which correspond essentially to the same age. These are 1 to 3 Myr younger than preexisting K-Ar ages for the granitic stock that generated these mineral deposits. Prograde mineral associations are hereby interpreted to have been directly associated with this intrusion. Therefore, we may calculate a simple decrease rate in temperatures of hydrothermal fluids between ~100° and > 300 °C per million years from prograde to retrograde skarn associations. Subepithermal and epithermal veins, however, remain undated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrothermal activity at Bahía Concepción, on the western coast of the Gulf of California, is not linked to present volcanic activity. This site is a potential energy source; however, geothermal modelling of the system is needed in order to determine the processes that generated this activity. Two processes might lead to the formation of the secondary fluids that were sampled in this submarine hydrothermal system: the thermal endmember might be undergoing either boiling or mixing with a fluid trapped within the sedimentary strata. However, boiling was ruled out as this process would not produce a highly saline fluid within the temperature range determined for the Bahía Concepción system (∼87°C). We modelled the mixing of a highly saline fluid with a geothermal fluid of meteoric origin. Our results suggest that the composition of the thermal water representing the hot endmember at Bahía Concepción consists of 20–30% highly saline fluid and 70–80% aqueous fluid of meteoric origin. The computed fluid has a chemical composition similar to that determined for the submarine vents. Its derived contents of calcium, chloride, and silica are similar to those we measured for the vent discharge. Our hypothesis of saline water addition is supported by the mineralizing fluid characteristics determined from fluid inclusion microthermometric study of a fossil intertidal system that discharges in the vicinity of the vent areas. This intertidal spring fluid at ∼40°C, according to the geochemical model, would be supersaturated in opaline silica and calcite, consistent with the mineralogy of the stromatolitic sinter encircling the discharges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Zn–Pb–Ag skarns of Zacatepec are located in the eastern Sierra Madre del Sur, southern Mexico. They are hosted by the Cuicateco Terrane, a composite unit made up of deformed Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanic and sedimentary rocks deposited in an arc environment that also hosts several precious- and base-metal epithermal deposits and Cu–Mo porphyries. The mineralization occurs as irregular masses along the contact between Cretaceous limestones and Tertiary porphyritic dacites. Over widths of few decimeters, an epidote-rich (Ep44–97Czo01–55Pie00–03) endoskarn is developed. For the most part, the mineralization consists in skarns of calcic garnet (Ad62–22Gr78–38) with disseminated hematite. Calcic garnets show chemical oscillatory zonation. Skarns rich in calcic clinopyroxenes (Di28–54Hd22–55Jo07–32) locally occur, farther from the porphyry contact. As a result of a retrograde event, the above assemblages are locally silicified, and ore minerals (sphalerite, galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite and minor scheelite) and chamosite deposited. The iron contents in sphalerite range between 5.0 and 9.4mol% FeS. An assemblage of sulfosalts, consisting of vikingite Ag5Pb8Bi13S30 and an Ag–Bi–S phase probably of the aikinite group, occurs. Locally, magnesian skarns develop and are composed of almost pure diopside (Di98–100Hd00–01Jo00), clinochlore, chrysotile, and vesuvianite notoriously rich in Ti (6.48 to 7.93wt.% TiO2). The magnesian skarns yield the highest metal grades, up to 595g/t of Ag, 9.94% Pb and 3.27% Zn. After weathering of the ores, botryoidal crusts of supergene minerals as smithsonite, rosasite (Cu,Zn)2(CO3)(OH)2 and hemimorphite developed. Microthermometric studies of fluid inclusions were carried out in calcite, calcic garnet, quartz and sphalerite. Homogenization to the liquid phase (Th) occurred between 160°C and 470°C. Salinities were calculated assuming an H2O–NaCl system and range from 10.5 to 19.8wt.% NaCl eq. The temperature of formation of the prograde skarn, calculated from microthermometric data with an assumed pressure of 500bar, ranges between 470°C and 510°C. A slight increase in ƒO2 caused the formation of garnet after clinopyroxene. The formation of the retrograde assemblage implies a decrease in temperature and, initially, in salinity, coupled with a great increase in ƒO2. These changes can be explained by mixing with cooler, oxidizing and dilute meteoric water. Subsequently, a progressive increase in fluid salinity as Th dropped from 300°C suggests that boiling took place triggering sulfide precipitation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Copyright of Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana is the property of Sociedad Geologica Mexicana and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Fluid inclusion data are used in this paper to explain the role of basinal brines for both the Sabinas and Southeast basins in Mexico, in which such brines were responsible for the formation of MVT and associated deposits, and for the migration and accumulation of petroleum, respectively. Salinities and temperatures of homogenization (Th) of fluid inclusions of the Pb-Zn MVT deposits of the Sabinas Basin range from 7 to 22 wt.% NaCl equiv. and Th range from 75° to 150°C. The barite mantos have aqueous fluid inclusions with sodium and calcium chloride brines, with dominant CaCl2, that range from 1 to 2 wt.% NaCl and from 8 to 24 wt.% CaCl2, and Th that range from 50° to 190°C. The celestine mantos associated to the MVT type have aqueous fluid inclusions with salinities that range from 1 to 12 wt.% NaCl equiv. and Th that range from 70° to 160°C. The fluorite mantos and breccias associated with the MVT type have aqueous fluid inclusions with salinities that range from 6 to 14 wt.% NaCl equiv. and Th that range from 50° to 170°C, and hydrocarbon inclusion fluids with Th that range from 45° to 90°C. Such hydrocarbon-bearing inclusions can generally be classified as (1) of low CH4 concentration (>20% mol) and low Th (45° a 60°C) inclusions, or (2) inclusions with higher methane concentrations (about 30-40% mol CH4) and higher Th (60° to 90°C). Hydrocarbon-bearing inclusions that show an aqueous phase have salinities of about 14 wt.% NaCl equiv. and generally low CO2 and sulfur concentrations, and high CH2/CH3 ratios, which correspond to C16-chain alkanes that formed at pressures between 160 to 300 bar. In the Southeast Basin the earliest paleofluids associated with Tithonian-Kimmeridgian rocks (petroleum generators) are represented by fluid inclusions that show calcic brines with Th that range from 55°C to 145°C and salinities that range from 0.5 to 1 wt.% NaCl and from 3 to 21 wt.% CaCl2. The hydrocarbon-bearing inclusions have Th that range from 1° to 87°C. The aqueous brines may have high methane concentrations, and formed at ∼1200 bar, suggesting that the rocks were overpressured during the circulation of paleofluids and their interaction with country rocks. During the migration of such fluids no less than five generations of dolomitization occurred, and the pressure regime shifted from lithostatic to hydrostatic, thus forming hydraulic breccias that were cemented by dolomite and late calcite. Such shift occurred at pressures that ranged from 900 to 500 bar and temperatures from 130° to 150°C, and the salinities of associated fluids range from 1.6 to 12 wt.% NaCl equiv. The filling of reservoirs occurred at similar temperatures, with associated aqueous fluids with salinities ranging from 2 and 8 wt.% NaCl equiv., whereas the aqueous fluids in hydrocarbon-bearing inclusions have Th that range from 40° to 100°C. Such inclusions were trapped during a shift back to the hydrostatic pressure regime, between 400 and 600 bar. In both petroleum and MVT deposits the geochemistry of halogens suggests the occurrence of water derived from the evaporation of seawater that reached the oversaturation in halite, in equilibrium with dolomitization processes. Such water mixed with mainly meteoric water during the filling of petroleum reservoirs and during the formation of some ores in MVT and associated deposits.… [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The most important deposit in the Plomosas–Rosario district, Sinaloa, is the vein tract named Plomositas–Plomosas–Los Arcos. These are NNW–SSE striking veins hosted in rocks of the Lower Volcanic Supergroup (LVS), and also in rocks at the bottom of the Upper Volcanic Supergroup (UVS). Both supergroups belong to the Sierra Madre Occidental. These veins evolved from an early intermediate sulfidation stage (1), rich in base metal sulfides, to a low sulfidation stage (2), rich in silver sulfides and sulfosalts. There is also a 45 m-wide stockwork with native silver and gold. Stage 1 is found in the deeper portion of the veins whereas stage 2 is found in the most shallow portion of the deposit. These stages record fluid inclusion salinities ranging from 7 to 12 wt.% NaCl equiv., and from 0.2 to 3.5 wt.% NaCl equiv., respectively. Homogenization temperatures range from 120 °C for surface samples to ∼200 °C at a depth of 320 m. The low homogenization temperatures recorded, and the dispersion of veins within host rocks as veinlets, suggest that this deposit formed at shallow depths and was probably blind. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The El Barqueño district, Jalisco, consists of several polymetallic (Au–Ag–Cu–Zn–Pb) epithermal veins hosted by a volcanoplutonic assemblage of andesitic rocks, granites and granodiorites that belong to the Lower Volcanic Supergroup of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The paragenetic sequence indicates two main mineralization stages. Stage I occurs as breccias with base-metal sulfides and virtually no gold and silver. Stage II is made up of several crustiform quartz bands that form symmetrical vein fillings and contain the precious-metal mineralization. Rhombohedral adularia crystals and quartz pseudomorphs of bladed calcite are widespread in stage II, providing evidence for boiling. Au- and Ag-bearing metallic minerals locally precipitated directly on adularia crystals, an association indicating boiling as the main mechanism of metal deposition. Temperature and salinity of mineralizing fluids range from 101 to 252 °C and 0.2 to 19.1 wt.% NaCl equiv., respectively. While temperatures cluster in the range from 120 to 160 °C, salinities have a bimodal distribution, with most of them falling either below 3 wt.% NaCl equiv. or higher than 10 wt.% NaCl equiv. These two arrays of salinity values describe mixing trends only locally, and may reflect different sources of mineralizing fluids, possibly dominated by meteoric and magmatic sources, respectively. An adularia separate from stage II was dated by 40Ar/ 39Ar geochronology at 57.91±0.44 Ma (isochron age). Thus, El Barqueño is the oldest known epithermal deposit in Mexico, and suggests the existence of a previously unrecognized Paleocene metallogenic event in southwestern Mexico. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The El Barqueño epithermal vein district is located in the southwestern part of the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. It is made up of several polymetallic (Au-Ag-Cu-Zn-Pb) epithermal veins hosted by a volcanoplutonic assemblage of andesitic rock s, granites, and granodiorites, which belong to the Lower Volcanic Supergroup of the Sierra Madre Occidental, within the Jalisco block. The veins trend from 45° to 100°, dipping to the southeast and south, and steepening with depth. The maximum strike length of the veins at El Barqueño is about 5 kin, and the maximum vein thickness is about 10 m (avg 2-3 m), narrowing with depth. The paragenetic sequence indicates two main mineralization stages. Stage I occurs as breccias with base metal sulfides and virtually no gold or silver. Stage II consists of crustiform quartz bands that form symmetrical vein fillings and contain the precious metal mineralization. Rhombohedral adularia crystals and quartz pseudomorphs after bladed calcite ar e widespread in stage II, providing evidence for boiling. Gold- and silver-bearing metallic minerals locally precipitated directly on adularia crystals, an association indicating boiling as the main mechanism of metal deposition. Conductive cooling and m ixing also may have been important. The temperature and salinity of the mineralizing fluids ranged from 101° to 252°C and 0.2 to 19.1 wt percent NaCl equiv, respectively. Whereas temperatures cluster in the range of 120° to 160°C, salinities have a bimodal distribution, mos t of them falling below 3 or higher than 10 wt percent NaCl equiv. These two arrays of salinity values only locally reflect mixing and may represent different sources of mineralizing fluids, possibly dominated by meteoric and magmatic sources, respective ly. An adularia separate from crustiform quartz bands of stage II was dated by 40Ar/39Ar geochronology at 57.91 ± 0.44 Ma (isochron age). Thus, El Barqueño has the oldest absolute age of any epithermal deposit in Mexico an d suggests the existence of a previously unrecognized Paleocene metallogenic event in southwestern Mexico associated with several types of ore deposits, including iron oxide-copper-gold, porphyry-type skarn and epithermal deposits. This further suggests that older rocks beneath the Upper Volcanic Supergroup of the Sierra Madre Occidental may be prospects for other epithermal veins and that exploration for epithermal deposits and related mineral deposit types should be focused in the oldest outcrop porti ons of the Sierra Madre Occidental. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Los Humeros Geothermal Field (LHGF) is one of the highest producing geothermal areas in Mexico. This paper aims essentially to determine high-resolution patterns of distribution of hypogene alteration assemblages and the distribution of temperatures in space and time of geothermal fluids in the LHGF. The zoning of hypogene alteration assemblages in the LHGF consists of (1) shallow advanced argillic alteration assemblages that grade into (2) argillic and (3) zeolitic assemblages with depth, followed by (4) low-temperature and (5) high-temperature propylitic, and (6) deep high-temperature high-silica advanced argillic alteration assemblages. The distribution of deep advanced argillic alteration assemblages is associated with the occurrence of acidic supercritical fluids prior to their deep boiling. Capping these, high-temperature propylitic assemblages are associated with the occurrence of subcritic brines (barely exceeding 13 wt% NaCl equiv.) that stemmed from magmatic supercritic fluids (upon degassing and/or conductive cooling) and that were diluted by deeply circulated and thermally equilibrated meteoric water. Conductively cooled subcritic fluids, which eventually kept being diluted on their way to the surface, would be likely associated with the generation of shallow low-temperature propylitic assemblages. Relatively fresh meteoric water might have been increasingly relevant in such dilution as upwelling fluids neared the surface. Shallow boiling occurred mostly between high- and medium-temperature propylitic zones, and generated acidic vapors that eventually condensated in the phreatic water table and, in part, in the argillic alteration zone. Shallow hypogene advanced argillic (and argillic) alteration consisting of kaolinite, platy alunite, native sulfur and the newly found cuprocopiapite occurred in steam-heated grounds. Fluid inclusion and present-day geothermal fluid data allow to introduce relative time as a variable in the characterization of hydrothermal fluids in the LHGF. These sets of temperature data allow to independently determine patterns of temperature distribution as isotherms. Concave shapes in isotherms are interpreted to spearhead preferential passageways for hydrothermal fluids. Some areas (for instance, in the southern part of the LHGF) record relatively stable passageways through time, but these may significantly shift their positions in other areas. Stable passageways, apparently undisturbed by geothermal exploitation, may identify robust portions of the system that ensure a long-lasting exploitation. They also correspond to sound inputs of high-salinity and hot magmatic fluids, which may be sandwiched between cooler low-salinity fluids, dominantly meteoric in origin, and collectively make a case for convection (and partial mixing). Also, we determined that "older" inclusion fluids are ∼50 °C higher than "younger" fluids from geothermal wells, but such decrease can be compatible with the cooling down of the system due to geothermal exploitation. Therefore, such differences in temperature do not necessarily reflect an actual cooling in the system. • Deep magmatic degassed supercritic fluids govern the plumbing of the geothermal field. • They interrelate with deeply circulated and fresh meteoric water, resulting in convection. • Subcritic fluids boiled in shallow advanced argillic alteration assemblages. • Boiled-off vapor condensed and resulted in steam-heated grounds. • The geothermal system does not record a significant cooling over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geochemical mass balances, supported by mineral characterization and whole-rock elemental analyses, were used to decipher the alteration paragenesis and to understand the elemental mobility related to the interaction of hydrothermal fluids with volcanic rocks (ignimbrites and lavas ranging from rhyolite to dacite) from the Acoculco geothermal system, in the eastern portion of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Three extensive events of hydrothermal alteration were distinguished, from earliest to latest: (1) selective silicification and argillization, (2) hydraulic brecciation by silica-rich fluid, and (3) acid-sulfate (vuggy and argillic advanced) alteration. According to the Gresens-Grant mass-balance method, the altered volcanic rocks of Acoculco are generally enriched in Ti and Si and depleted in the rest of major elements; this chemical behavior is striking in the case of vuggy and silicic altered rocks. Small changes in some element concentrations calculated by the Gresens-Grant method may be due to chemical heterogeneity between the rock chosen to be the reference ("fresh rocks") and the protolith of the altered ones. The chondrite-normalized REE gave different patterns for distinct types of alteration; vuggy and silicified rocks present low LREE and high HREE in opposition to the advanced argillic alteration. Boiling, primarily related to the last alteration event, may have happened at variable depths (825, 325 and 102 m below present surface); it produced changes fluid composition, resulting in acidic pH surface alterations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Miocene skarn deposits at Tatatila–Las Minas are found in central-eastern Veracruz state, east Mexico, near the Palma Sola massif. These deposits are geologically associated with the early stages of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) intruded Mesozoic carbonate rocks of the Sierra Madre Oriental. Skarn associations are distributed in the classic evolution from prograde to retrograde mineralization stage. Prograde associations consist mainly of grossular-andradite, clinopyroxene, quartz, wollastonite, clinopyroxene, potassium feldspar, quartz, epidote, chromian muscovite, and are rich in magnetite, whereas retrograde associations are richer in hematite than magnetite, chlorite, fuchsite, hornblende and additionally contain chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, and native gold. The systematic study of fluid inclusions shows a broad variety of petrographic and microthermometric features. Fluid inclusion associations in early prograde minerals show evidence for boiling and effervescence, which are hereby interpreted as deep boiling in the -magmatic environment (or "first boiling") with no evidence for supercritic fluids. Such a process would account for the generation of two distinct brines at ≤650 °C (a) up to ∼20 wt% NaCl equiv. and (b) up to ∼70 wt% NaCl. Both brines have cooled down independently until the brittle-ductile transition (∼400 °C) bypassed it and were able to interact with other fluids, and perhaps between with each other. Later on, deep isothermal mixing would have occurred between both brines and deeply evolved meteoric water (thermally equilibrated with host rocks). REE geochemistry of garnet suggests that mineralizing fluids at prograde stage evolved from near neutral pH and oxidizing conditions to mildly acidic and reducing conditions, perhaps reflecting the entrainment of shallow fluids. Both brines or their mixed products have experienced further dilution leading to the precipitation of retrograde associations. The most noticeable features in the retrograde stages, however, are conductive cooling and shallow isothermal mixing, this time between the products of the two pathways that originated as two distinct types of magmatic brines. The occurrence of magmatic fluids is corroborated by C and O isotope geochemistry, in which such source presents different types of water/rock interaction with sedimentary C and O from local limestones (δ13C VPDB between 0.9 and 3.7‰ and δ18O VPDB between −7.5 and −3.7‰), thus drawing an isotopic zonation that parallels the marble front associated with skarns (endoskarn calcite, δ13C VPDB between −8.5 and −3.5‰, and δ18O VPDB between −22.4 and −15.0‰). δ34S VCDT values from pyrite, chalcopyrite and galena in retrograde associations (between −3 and 4.2‰) also indicate a dominant magmatic source for sulfur, with a minor sedimentary/metasedimentary contribution. Low H 2 S concentrations enhanced magnetite deposition in prograde stages, and the progressive increase in H 2 S concentrations, coupled with a decrease in temperature by conductive cooling, led to sulfide and gold precipitation during retrograde stages. These deposits are hereby classified as IOCG skarn that were developed in association with the regional adakitic stage of the TMVB. • The Miocene skarn deposits at Tatatila–Las Minas in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt are classified as IOCG skarn deposits. • Massive magnetite deposits occur in the prograde stage, and Cu–Au mineralization in the retrograde stage. • Ore-bearing fluids show a complex evolution from the magmatic scant deep domains. • Massive magnetite would have formed by boiling and/or effervescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The El Álamo is one of the most important historic gold mining districts in the Peninsular Ranges batholith. Gold mineralizations at El Álamo consist in fault-fill laminated quartz veins with small amounts of sulfides and oxides, and lesser amounts of gold. Veins are mainly emplaced along compressional brittle-plastic shear zones within the El Álamo quartz diorite (146.6 ± 1.6 Ma, U–Pb zircon), which is intruded by the San Marcos dike swarm (126.8 ± 1.7 Ma, U–Pb zircon). Several lines of evidence indicate that the dike swarm is older than quartz veins, and the formation of the later is related to the Peninsular Ranges orogeny (∼110−98 Ma). Gold bearing quartz veins formed during regional prograde metamorphism (greenschist facies), and the veins subsequently underwent plastic deformation, dynamic recrystallization and metamorphism. Gold remobilization and concentration seems to have been largely enhanced by metamorphism, probably accounting for very high grade, albeit sporadic, bonanza ores, typical of the district. 40Ar/39Ar dating of hydrothermal white micas from the auriferous veins yielded ages of 97.86 ± 0.17 Ma at the Ulises mine and 97.46 ± 0.17 Ma at the La Americana mine. These ages are interpreted as the minimum age of the regional metamorphism in the area. Based on their primary characteristics, the gold deposits from El Álamo district can be ascribed to the orogenic gold type. These deposits are similar to other known deposits in the same orogenic context (e.g., Julian district; southern California), and they probably conform a new Cordilleran orogenic gold belt that could extend over much of the exhumed axis of the Peninsular Ranges batholith. [Display omitted] • The El Álamo deposits are formally described as part of the orogenic gold type. • These deposits may constitute a part of a new Cordilleran orogenic gold belt. • Gold-bearing quartz veins formed during prograde phase of the mid-Cretaceous metamorphic event in the Peninsular Ranges batholith. • Gold deposits underwent plastic deformation, dynamic recrystallization and metamorphism (upper-greenschist facies) affecting gold concentration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the San Marcos ranges of Cuatrociénegas, NE Mexico, several sediment-hosted copper deposits occur within the boundary between the Coahuila Block, a basement high mostly granitic in composition and Late Paleozoic to Triassic in age, and the Mesozoic Sabinas rift basin. This boundary is outlined by the regional-scale synsedimentary San Marcos Fault. At the basin scale, the copper mineralization occurs at the top of a ∼1000m thick red-bed succession (San Marcos Formation, Berrisian), a few meters below a conformable, transitional contact with micritic limestones (Cupido Formation, Hauterivian to Aptian). It consists of successive decimeter-thick roughly stratiform copper-rich horizons placed just above the red-beds, in a transitional unit of carbonaceous grey-beds grading to micritic limestones. The host rocks are fine- to medium-grained arkoses, with poorly sorted and subangular to subrounded grains. The detrital grains are cemented by quartz and minor calcite; besides, late iron oxide grain-coating cement occurs at the footwall unmineralized red-beds. The source area of the sediments, indicated by their modal composition, is an uplifted basement. The contents of SiO2 (40.70–87.50wt.%), Al2O3 (5.91–22.00wt.%), K2O (3.68–12.50wt.%), Na2O (0.03–2.03wt.%) and CaO (0.09–3.78wt.%) are within the ranges expected for arkoses. Major oxide ratios indicate that the sedimentary-tectonic setting was a passive margin. The outcropping copper mineralization essentially consists in a supergene assemblage of chrysocolla, malachite and azurite. All that remains of the primary mineralization are micron-sized chalcocite grains shielded by quartz cement. In addition, pyrite subhedral grains occur scattered throughout the copper-mineralized horizons. In these weathered orebodies copper contents range between 4.24 and 7.72wt.%, silver between 5 and 92ppm, and cobalt from 8 to 91ppm. Microthermometric measurements of fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite crystals from footwall barren veinlets gave temperatures of homogenization between 98°C and 165°C, and ice-melting temperatures between −42.5°C and −26.1°C. The primary copper mineralization formed during the early diagenesis, contemporary with the active life of the Sabinas Basin. The mineralizing fluids were dense, near neutral, moderately oxidized brines that originally formed from seawater that, driven by gravity, infiltrated to the deepest parts of the basin and dissolved evaporites. As a result, they became hydrothermal fluids of moderate temperature capable of leaching high amounts of copper. The source of this metal could be mafic detrital grains and iron oxides of the underlying Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous red-beds. Copper precipitation took place when the brines passed through the redox boundary marked by the transition from red- to grey-beds. The upward movement of the brines was promoted by a high heat flow that allowed their convective circulation and their ascent along the synsedimentary San Marcos Fault. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We propose a simple graphic and statistical method for processing short-wave infrared (SWIR) reflectivity spectra of alteration minerals, which classifies spectra according to their shape and absorption features, thus obtaining groups of spectra equivalent to mineral assemblages. It also permits selection of fewer samples for further mineralogical verification. This method uses the SWIR spectra without hull subtraction. The first step is to normalize the spectra reflectivity to 100% at maximum. In order to reduce the reflectance dataset, a decimation filter is used, obtaining one value for each 10nm. Subsequently, a cluster analysis using as input data the decimated reflectance values for each sample results in a dendrogram that deduces assemblages of SWIR active minerals. The effectiveness of this methodology is illustrated with a study of the Acoculco Caldera, which is a geothermal prospective area. Two major alteration zones have been recognized: a shallow one with ammonium illite, and a deeper one with epidote–calcite–chlorite. Four additional mineral assemblages have been identified: (a) buddingtonite and (b) smectite, in the recent volcanic sequence, and (c) calcite marble and (d) granitic rocks, in the Mesozoic basement. The shallow alteration zone extends to a depth of 500–600m, affecting most of the caldera sequence. It consists of a pervasive ammonium-argillic alteration of ignimbrites and dacitic lavas. Although ammonium illite is the main alteration mineral, kaolinite (sensu lato), buddingtonite and smectite locally occur at depths down to 300m. The occurrence of ammonium silicates suggests temperatures above 200°C. There is a positive correspondence between the abundance of ammonium minerals and the total nitrogen content of the rocks. The highest value (0.65 N wt.%) corresponds to a sample rich in buddingtonite. Ammonia is probably derived from the organic matter in the Mesozoic sedimentary series underlying the caldera. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Francisco I. Madero deposit, central Mexico, occurs in the Mesozoic Guerrero Terrane, which hosts many ore deposits, both Cretaceous (volcanogenic massive sulfides) and Tertiary (epithermal and skarn deposits). It is hosted by a 600 m-thick calcareous-pelitic unit, of Lower Cretaceous age, crosscut by porphyritic dikes that strike NW–SE. A thick felsic volcanic Tertiary sequence, consisting of andesites and rhyolitic ignimbrites, unconformably overlies the Cretaceous series. At the base, the mineralization consists of several mantos developed within calcareous beds. They are dominantly composed of sphalerite, pyrrhotite and pyrite with minor chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and galena. At the top of the orebody, there are calcic skarns formed through prograde and retrograde stages. The resulting mineral assemblages are rich in manganoan hedenbergite (Hd75–28Di40–4Jh40–20), andraditic garnets (Adr100–62Grs38–0), epidote (Ep95–36Czo60–5Pie8–0), chamosite, calcite and quartz. The temperature of ore deposition, estimated by chlorite and arsenopyrite geothermometry, ranges from 243° to 277 °C and from 300° to 340 °C, respectively. The pressure estimated from sphalerite geobarometry averages 2.1 kbar. This value corresponds to a moderately deep skarn and agrees with the high Cu content of the deposit. Paragenesis, P–T conditions and geological characteristics are compatible with a distal, dike-related, Zn skarn deposit. Its style of mineralization is similar to that of many high-temperature carbonate replacement skarn deposits in the Southern Cordillera. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Tiámaro deposit in Michoacán state has been dated as Lower Cretaceous (Valanginian), though most of the porphyry deposits in central Mexico were dated or have an attributed Eocene–Oligocene age. The host rocks belong to a volcanoplutonic complex overlain by red conglomerates. These rocks were intruded by pre-Valanginian plutonic and hypabissal rocks. Propylitic, phyllic, and argillic alteration assemblages developed, and their superimposition draws the evolution of the deposit. Stage I is represented by propylitic assemblages, stage II contains the main ore forming stockworks and both phyllic and argillic assemblages, and stage III contains late carbonatization assemblages. The obtained temperatures and salinities from inclusion fluids are low for a porphyry-type deposit, but we interpret that the known part of the deposit represents the shallow portion of a bigger deposit. The evolution of mineralizing fluids draws a dilution trend of brines from “porphyry-like” to “epithermal-like” stages. The richest ore zone is roughly located between the 300 and 350 °C isotherms, though unnoticed resources may occur at depth. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

[Display omitted] • Latest Oligocene–Miocene arc magmatism in central Oaxaca developed in a thick continental crust. • Early–mid-Miocene metallogenic epoch in southern Mexico comprises Au-Ag rich epithermal deposits. • Precious metal-rich intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits occur at Natividad. • Detailed vein stratigraphy reveals multi-episodic fluid pulses and interaction with wall rocks. • First formal report of argyrodite (Ag 8 GeS 6) in Mexico. The final magmatic arc—Miocene in age—of the long-lived Sierra Madre del Sur igneous province in southern Mexico hosts several epithermal deposits that have hitherto received little attention. The Natividad Au-Ag(-Ge) epithermal deposit is one of them and holds a mining record of > 200 years. Here, we present the first petrogenetic and metallogenic study on the Natividad deposit, in which we use a multi-methodological approach to assess the genesis and evolution of the deposit and its associated igneous rocks. Natividad is mostly hosted by Oligocene–Miocene arc-related dacites (U-Pb zircon dates of 22.8–24.7 Ma), whose geochemical features suggest lower-crustal differentiation (i.e., involvement of garnet) at the base of a thickened continental crust. The mineralization occurs in three multi-stage quartz + carbonate veins and consists of Fe-poor sphalerite (<5 mol. % FeS), galena, chalcopyrite, acanthite, and marcasite (sulfide-dominated stage) overprinted by pearceite-polybasite, pyrargyrite-proustite, tetrahedrite-group minerals, electrum, and argyrodite (Ag 8 GeS 6 ; Ag-sulfosalt-dominated stage). Geothermometry and fluid inclusion data for ore-bearing assemblages reveal fluid temperatures of 170°–400 °C and salinities of 14.6–19.5 wt% NaCl equiv. δ18O from 0.8 ‰ to 7.5 ‰ in mineralizing fluids suggests mixtures of magmatic brines and meteoric waters, while δ13C from –8.4 ‰ to 2.2 ‰ indicates the recycling of organic carbon from the meta -sedimentary basement. Further, δ34S from –3.2 ‰ to –0.3 ‰ in sulfides attest to magmatic S. These results align with an intermediate-sulfidation epithermal model, whereby upwelling magmatic ore-bearing brines precipitated the ores due to conductive cooling, dilution, and, locally, boiling. Our study highlights the metallogenic potential of Miocene magmatism in the eastern Sierra Madre de Sur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A boiling model that considers the increase of salinity due to the steam loss and uses a combined density of the coexisting vapor and liquid phases was applied to fluid inclusion data from Los Azufres geothermal zone and from an Eocene epithermal vein of Taxco. These case studies are taken as examples of active and fossil hydrothermal systems, respectively. In Los Azufres high temperatures of homogenization (> 300 °C) are commonly attained at depths between 1500 and 2000 m whereas salinity values above 2.0 wt.% NaCl eq. occur within the upper ~ 500 m of the system, suggesting that the geothermal zone is largely affected by boiling. The depths calculated with the boiling model are close to real depths, with accuracy greater than 99% for one case; however, considerably large error (30%) was obtained to the top of the geothermal system due to enhanced CO 2 concentrations. Contrastingly, the depths estimated by plotting microthermometric data on boiling point curves (of constant salinity and discarding the effect of vapor on hydrostatic pressure) were systematically shallower than real ones, implying an underestimation of depth of up to ~ 50%. For the application case of the Taxco epithermal deposit, microthermometric data describe a boiling evolution path in the temperature–salinity space although some values deviate from it, thus likely reflecting local mixing with fluids of contrasting salinity. According to our model, boiling occurred from a paleo-depth of 360 m, which corresponds to a current (sampling) depth of about 200 m; this level in the hydrothermal system coincides with the boundary between a lower base metal zone and an upper silver-rich zone. These results suggest that the descriptive models for epithermal deposits could be incorrectly calibrated in terms of depth; therefore, they could be revised and corrected by applying the boiling model used in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Acoculco geothermal system is hosted by a caldera complex located at the eastern portion of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Surface manifestations are scarce and consist of low temperature, bubbling, acid–sulfate springs that are concentrated in two zones separated from each other by ∼1750 m. In the northernmost one, there are conspicuous features suggesting recent, explosive, hydrothermal activity. Most of the rocks that crop out are tuffs and breccias that show pervasive hydrothermal alteration. Six SWIR-active minerals have been revealed by reflectance spectroscopy in the surface altered rocks: Opal, kaolinite, alunite, ammoniojarosite, buddingtonite and interstratified illite–smectite; they are indicative of alteration assemblages comparable to those reported in other geothermal systems and in epithermal deposits. Opal is the most widespread alteration mineral and occurs in association with tridimite and anatase. Kaolinite is also widely distributed but has a greater presence in the area with active surface manifestations, which, moreover, is the only area with alunite and ammoniojarosite occurrences. Buddingtonite occurs in the same zones as sulfates. As a complement to the alteration maps, we are proposing a simple method for mapping ammonium anomalies, based on total N analyses in altered rocks. Total N data show a discontinuous distribution within a wide range of variation (0.01–3.28 wt.%). All medium and high N values (>0.26 wt.%) plot in three clusters, two of which coincide with zones of gas emission. A deep circulating, active hydrothermal system cannot be ruled out in Acoculco although it may be confined to the deep caldera structure by an impermeable cap-rock of silicic and argillic alteration. In this scenario, hydrothermal fluids would reach the surface periodically, when explosive hydrothermal fracturing allowed it. The occurrence of hydrothermal explosion features and of acid–sulfate alteration supports this scenario. Therefore, further exploration by drilling would be advisable in Acoculco. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Boiling can be inferred from fluid inclusion microthermometry studies when a progressive increase in apparent salinity is observed along with a decrease of homogenization temperature (TH) and depth, thus reflecting the partitioning of non-volatile solutes into the liquid phase during steam loss. We propose a model for fluid evolution during boiling based on mass and heat balance equations, which establishes paths in the TH-salinity space that can be compared with fluid inclusion data to confirm or discard boiling. Additionally, the model allows calculating paleo-depths, for which the effect of steam bubbles lowering the hydrostatic pressure is taken into account. The Bolaños Ag–Au–Pb–Zn deposit was selected to test the suitability of the proposed model, given that previous work in this deposit emphasizes the role of boiling in ore deposition. The Bolaños deposit belongs to the low-sulfidation epithermal type and is genetically related to the final stage of formation of a graben-type caldera. Microthermometry data show that the deeper the sample was taken, the higher is TH and the lower is salinity (sample depths: 540, 500, 440 and 200m below present surface). The overall range (n =108) of variation of TH and salinity is of 137°–279°C and 2.4–10.9wt.% NaCl eq., respectively. According to our model, rising hydrothermal fluids in Bolaños underwent boiling from depths not exceeding 440m (below present surface). Conversely, below this level fluid evolution cannot be explained in terms of boiling, because the increase of salinity is much greater than the expected considering solely the amount of steam lost during the corresponding drop of temperature. The calculated paleo-depth for the lowest level of boiling in a Bolaños vein is ~435m. Neglecting the drop in fluid density due to steam bubbles may lead to serious underestimations of paleo-depths. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Mineral alteration and fluid inclusion studies of drill cuttings and core samples indicate that the sedimentary basement rocks and the volcanic rocks associated with Tulancingo–Acoculco Caldera Complex have been the site of two distinct and major hydrothermal events. The complex, located in the eastern portion of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, is formed by the Pliocene Tulancingo Caldera and the younger (Pleistocene) Acoculco Caldera, which developed within the older depression. The volcanic rocks are underlain by Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The earliest important hydrothermal event occurred during the emplacement of Mid-Tertiary granitic intrusions that metamorphosed the sedimentary rocks; these intrusives are not exposed at the surface. However, granitic rocks were encountered at the bottom of exploratory borehole EAC-1, drilled within the Caldera Complex. The second main event occurred during the formation of the Tulancingo and Acoculco Calderas. Both episodes lead to secondary mineralization that reduced the permeability of the reservoir rocks. A possible third hydrothermal event may be associated with the recent magmatic activity within the Acoculco Caldera.Thermal logs from well EAC-1 display a conductive thermal gradient with maximum temperatures exceeding 300°C at 2000m depth. Although there are no active thermal springs in the area, there is extensive fossil surface hydrothermal alteration and cold gas discharges with high He3/He4 ratios. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Generation of electricity at the Las Tres Vírgenes (LTV) geothermal field, Mexico, began in 2001. There are currently nine geothermal wells in the field, which has an installed electricity generating capacity of 10MWe. The chemical and temperature conditions prevailing in the field prior to its exploitation have been estimated, including their central tendency and dispersion parameters. These conditions were computed on the basis of: (i) geochemical data on waters from springs and domestic wells, and on geothermal well fluids (waters and gases); most of the sampling took place between 1995 and 1999; (ii) fluid inclusion studies; (iii) geothermometric data; and (iv) static formation temperatures computed using a modified quadratic regression Horner method. Fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures (in the 100–290°C range) suggest that there is a high-temperature fluid upflow zone near wells LV3 and LV4 in the southern part of the field. Computed average chemical equilibrium temperatures for the geothermal fluids are ∼260°C, based on the Na/K and SiO2 geothermometers, and ∼265°C, based on the H2/Ar, and CO2/Ar geothermometers. In general, the fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures are consistent with geothermometric data, as well as with static formation temperatures. Some of the observed differences could be related to well interference effects and different fluid production/sampling depths. The deeper geothermal waters show higher concentrations of Cl, Na, K, B, Ba, but lower concentrations of SO4, Ca, and Mg than the shallower waters. Fluid inclusion salinities are also higher in the deeper rocks. The measured Na/Cl ratios of the geothermal well waters are more or less uniform throughout the field and are very similar to that of seawater, strongly suggesting a seawater component in the fluid of the LTV system. The heat stored in the LTV geothermal system was estimated to be at least 9×1012 MJ, of which some 4×1011 MJ (equivalent to about 148MWe for 30 years of operation, assuming a conversion efficiency of ∼35%) might be extracted using wells. These results indicate that the installed capacity at LTV could be safely increased from the current 10MWe. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]