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Abstract: Magma is fed to a volcano through a complex “plumbing” system that involves not only shallow structures beneath the volcano edifice, but also deep structures and processes within the underlying crust and upper mantle. This paper summarizes seismic experiments carried out over many years at Gunung Merapi in Central Java. These have resolved the 3D seismic velocity structure of the Merapi edifice, and provided a 3D structural image of the lithosphere and subduction zone beneath Central Java. Earthquake locations reveal that with distance from the trench, the dip of the subducting slab steepens from nearly horizontal (0–150km), through 45° (150–250km), to 70° (>250km). The slab appears as a 30km thick double layer of seismicity in a depth range of 80km to 150km, and it can be identified seismically to a depth of more than 600km. The active volcanoes of Merapi, Sumbing, and Lawu are located at the edge of a large low velocity body that extends from the upper crust to the upper mantle beneath Central Java. Shear wave signals recorded above this anomaly are strongly attenuated compared to neighboring areas. The anomalous body has a detected volume of >50,000km3 and a decrease in P and S velocities relative to adjacent regions of up to 30%. The resulting Vp/Vs ratio of up to 1.9 is unusually high for lower crust. Additionally, the anomaly extends along a 45 degree-slope downward from beneath the volcanic arc and meets the slab at 100km depth. We interpret this sloping anomaly as a pathway for fluids and partial melts. Increased seismicity is observed at depths of ~100km, possibly as a result of dehydration of the subducting slab with related fluid releases causing partial melting of overlying mantle material. The large velocity reduction and high Vp/Vs ratio in the region are consistent with an increase in temperature, a reduction of shear strength, and the presence of fluids or melts of 13 to 25vol.%. The detected strong anomaly beneath Central Java is unique in size and amplitude compared to other subduction zones. The geophysical evidence suggests that this segment of the arc has a high magma flux and is thus capable of developing even larger shallow crustal reservoirs and more voluminous explosive eruptions in the future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The link between seismicity and degassing is investigated during the VEI 4 eruptions of Merapi volcano (Indonesia) in October and in early November 2010. Seismicity comprised a large number and variety of earthquakes including Volcano-Tectonic events, a sustained period of Long Period Seismicity (LPS), i.e., Long-Period events (LP), Very Long Period events (VLP) and tremor. LPS seismicity is ascribed to the excitation of fluid-filled cavity resonance and inertial displacement of fluids and magma. We investigate here LPS that occurred between 17 October and 4 November 2010 to obtain insights into the volcano eruption processes which preceded the paroxysmal phase of the eruption on 4–5 November. We proceed to the moment tensor inversion of a well-recorded large VLP event during the intrusion phase on 17 October 2010, i.e., before the first explosion on 26 October. By using two simplified models (crack and pipe), we find a shallow source for this VLP event at about 1km to the south of the summit and less than 1km below the surface. We analyze more than 90 LP events that occurred during the multi-phase eruption (29 October–4 November). We show that most of them have a dominant frequency in the range 0.2–4Hz. We could locate 48 of those LP events; at least 3 clusters of LP events occurred successively. We interpret these observations as generated by different fluid-filled containers in the summit area that were excited while magma rose. We also observe significant variations of the complex frequency during the course of the eruption. We discuss these changes in terms of a variable ratio of fluid to solid densities and/or by possible conduit geometry change and/or permeability of the conduit or the edifice and/or by resonance of different fluid-containers during the release of more than 0.4Tg of SO2 and large but unknown masses of other volcanic gases. Finally, we also discuss how the major explosions of the eruption were possibly triggered by passing waves resulting from regional tectonic earthquakes on 3 and 4 November. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Merapi volcano (Indonesia) is one of the most active and hazardous volcanoes in the world. It is known for frequent small to moderate eruptions, pyroclastic flows produced by lava dome collapse, and the large population settled on and around the flanks of the volcano that is at risk. Its usual behavior for the last decades abruptly changed in late October and early November 2010, when the volcano produced its largest and most explosive eruptions in more than a century, displacing at least a third of a million people, and claiming nearly 400 lives. Despite the challenges involved in forecasting this ‘hundred year eruption’, we show that the magnitude of precursory signals (seismicity, ground deformation, gas emissions) was proportional to the large size and intensity of the eruption. In addition and for the first time, near-real-time satellite radar imagery played an equal role with seismic, geodetic, and gas observations in monitoring eruptive activity during a major volcanic crisis. The Indonesian Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) issued timely forecasts of the magnitude of the eruption phases, saving 10,000–20,000 lives. In addition to reporting on aspects of the crisis management, we report the first synthesis of scientific observations of the eruption. Our monitoring and petrologic data show that the 2010 eruption was fed by rapid ascent of magma from depths ranging from 5 to 30km. Magma reached the surface with variable gas content resulting in alternating explosive and rapid effusive eruptions, and released a total of ~0.44Tg of SO2. The eruptive behavior seems also related to the seismicity along a tectonic fault more than 40km from the volcano, highlighting both the complex stress pattern of the Merapi region of Java and the role of magmatic pressurization in activating regional faults. We suggest a dynamic triggering of the main explosions on 3 and 4 November by the passing seismic waves generated by regional earthquakes on these days. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]