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Background: Retention of patients who are receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) remains a challenge especially in the setting of rapid expansion of HIV services. Retention in care remains vital to the HIV care continuum, and has been associated with viral suppression and improved survival. This study aimed to ascertain survival rates, time to loss to follow-up (LTFU) or mortality events and factors associated with time to LTFU or mortality among patients enrolled on antiretroviral therapy at health facilities in central Kenya. Methods: This was a retrospective cohort study among patients initiated on ART between 2004 and 2012 in central Kenya. Demographic characteristics, clinical characteristics and outcomes data were analyzed using Stata version 15.1. Competing risks regression analysis and cummulative incidence functions were used to estimate survival. Results: A total of 31,346 patients were included, of whom 65.6% were female, 76.0% were aged between 20 and 50 years old, and 38.9% were diagnosed at WHO stage III. At 36 months, overall retention was 68.8%, LTFU was 27.1%, and mortality was 4.1%. The total person-years of follow up was 74,986. The incidence rate of LTFU was 9.99 per 100 person years for a total of 9383.25 person-years of follow up. The mortality rate was 1.25 per 100 person years for a total of 875.5 person-years among those who died. The median time to LTFU was 11 months (IQR 3–22) while median time to death was 3 months (IQR 0–13). Men, unmarried patients, patients presenting with advanced HIV, not on TB treatment, and enrolled into the HIV program in later cohorts, had a shorter time to mortality and LTFU. Conclusion: Our study demonstrated evidence of scale-up of HIV treatment programs in central Kenya. While most patients were enrolled at an advanced WHO clinical stage, overall 36-month mortality remained low, but occurred earlier during follow-up. Cohort LTFU at 36-months reduced in later years with the losses occurring within the 1st year of follow-up. Predictors of early mortality and LTFU included being male, single, separated or divorced, advanced WHO clinical stage, and among patients not on TB treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV, ages 10-19) experience complex barriers to care engagement. Challenges surrounding HIV status disclosure or non-disclosure to adolescents may contribute to adolescent disengagement from HIV care or non-adherence to ART. We performed a qualitative study to investigate the contribution of disclosure challenges to adolescent disengagement from HIV care.Methods: This was a qualitative study performed with disengaged ALHIV and their caregivers, and with healthcare workers (HCW) in the Academic Model Providing Access to Healthcare (AMPATH) program in western Kenya. Inclusion criteria for ALHIV were ≥1 visit within the 18 months prior to data collection at one of two clinical sites and nonattendance ≥60 days following their last scheduled appointment. HCW were recruited from 10 clinics. Analysis was conducted by multiple independent coders, and narratives of disclosure and care disengagement were closely interrogated. Overarching themes were elucidated and summarized.Results: Interviews were conducted with 42 disengaged ALHIV, 32 caregivers, and 28 HCW. ALHIV were average age 17.0 (range 12.9-20.9), and 95% indicated awareness of their HIV diagnosis. Issues surrounding disclosure to ALHIV presented important barriers to HIV care engagement. Themes centered on delays in HIV status disclosure; hesitancy and reluctance among caregivers to disclose; struggles for adolescents to cope with feelings of having been deceived prior to full disclosure; pervasive HIV stigma internalized in school and community settings prior to disclosure; and inadequate and unstructured support after disclosure, including for adolescent mental health burdens and for adolescent-caregiver relationships and communication. Both HCW and caregivers described feeling inadequately prepared to optimally handle disclosure and to manage challenges that may arise after disclosure.Conclusions: Complex challenges surrounding HIV status disclosure to adolescents contribute to care disengagement. There is need to enhance training and resources for HCW, and to empower caregivers to support children and adolescents before, during, and after HIV status disclosure. This should include counseling caregivers on how to provide children with developmentally-appropriate and accurate information about their health from an early age, and to support adolescent-caregiver communication and relationships. Optimally integrating peer support can further promote ALHIV wellbeing and retention in care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Loss to follow-up (LFTU) among HIV patients remains a major obstacle to achieving treatment goals with the risk of failure to achieve viral suppression and thereby increased HIV transmission. Although use of clinical decision support systems (CDSS) has been shown to improve adherence to HIV clinical guidance, to our knowledge, this is among the first studies conducted to show its effect on LTFU in low-resource settings.Methods: We analyzed data from a cluster randomized controlled trial in adults and children (aged ≥ 18 months) who were receiving antiretroviral therapy at 20 HIV clinics in western Kenya between Sept 1, 2012 and Jan 31, 2014. Participating clinics were randomly assigned, via block randomization. Clinics in the control arm had electronic health records (EHR) only while the intervention arm had an EHR with CDSS. The study objectives were to assess the effects of a CDSS, implemented as alerts on an EHR system, on: (1) the proportion of patients that were LTFU, (2) LTFU patients traced and successfully linked back to treatment, and (3) time from enrollment on the study to documentation of LTFU.Results: Among 5901 eligible patients receiving ART, 40.6% (n = 2396) were LTFU during the study period. CDSS was associated with lower LTFU among the patients (Adjusted Odds Ratio-aOR 0.70 (95% CI 0.65-0.77)). The proportions of patients linked back to treatment were 25.8% (95% CI 21.5-25.0) and 30.6% (95% CI 27.9-33.4)) in EHR only and EHR with CDSS sites respectively. CDSS was marginally associated with reduced time from enrollment on the study to first documentation of LTFU (adjusted Hazard Ratio-aHR 0.85 (95% CI 0.78-0.92)).Conclusion: A CDSS can potentially improve quality of care through reduction and early detection of defaulting and LTFU among HIV patients and their re-engagement in care in a resource-limited country. Future research is needed on how CDSS can best be combined with other interventions to reduce LTFU. Trial registration NCT01634802. Registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov on 12-Jul-2012. Registered prospectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The scale-up of HIV treatment programs has resulted in a reduction in HIV-related morbidity and mortality. However, retention of patients in these programs remains a challenge in sub-Saharan Africa. Understanding factors associated with loss to follow-up (LTFU) and mortality outcomes is therefore important to inform targeted program interventions.Methods: A retrospective multi-cohort analysis of 23,890 adult patients on ART over 36 months of follow-up in Kenya was done. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was done to assess for factors associated with LTFU and mortality at 6, 12, 24, and 36 months of follow-up.Results: Majority, 67.7%, were female. At 36 months, 27.2% were LTFU and 13.5% had died. Factors associated with mortality at 36 months included older age (51 years and above) using 20-35 years as reference [(adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.51, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.23-1.86, p < 0.001], being male (aOR, 1.59, 95% CI 1.39-1.83, p < 0.001), divorced using married as reference (aOR, 1.86, 95% CI 1.56-2.22, p < 0.001), having a body mass index (BMI) score of less than 18.5 kg/m2 using 18.5-24.9 kg/m2 as reference (aOR = 1.79, 95% CI 1.52-2.11, p < 0.001), and, World Health Organization stage III and IV using stage I as the reference (aOR, 1.94, 95% CI 1.43-2.63 and aOR, 4.24, 95% CI 3.06-5.87, p < 0.001 respectively). Factors associated with LTFU at 36 months included being young between 20 and 35 years (aOR, 1.49, 95% CI 1.40-1.59, p < 0.001) using 36-50 years as reference, being male (aOR, 1.19, 95% CI 1.12-1.27, p < 0.001), and being single or divorced using married as reference (aOR, 1.34, 95% CI 1.23-1.45 and aOR, 1.25, 95% CI 1.15-1.36, p < 0.001 respectively). Patients with baseline BMI of less than 18.5 kg/m2 using normal BMI as reference (aOR, 1.68, 95% CI 1.39-2.02, p < 0.001) were also likely to be LTFU.Conclusions: Factors associated with LTFU and mortality were generally similar over time. Implementation of programs in similar settings should be tailored to gender, age profiles, nutritional, and, marital status of patients to address LTFU. In addition, programs should focus on the care of older patients to reduce the risk of mortality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) treatment programs expand in Africa, delivery systems must be strengthened to support patient retention. Clinic characteristics may affect retention, but a relationship between clinic flow and attrition is not established. This project characterized HIV patient experience and flow in an urban Kenyan clinic to understand how these may affect retention. We used Toyota's lean manufacturing principles to guide data collection and analysis. Clinic flow was evaluated using value stream mapping and time and motion techniques. Clinic register data were analyzed. Two focus group discussions were held to characterize HIV patient experience. Results were shared with clinic staff. Wait times in the clinic were highly variable. We identified four main barriers to patient flow: inconsistent patient arrivals, inconsistent staffing, filing system defects, and serving patients out of order. Focus group participants explained how clinic operations affected their ability to engage in care. Clinic staff were eager to discuss the problems identified and identified numerous low-cost potential solutions. Lean manufacturing methodologies can guide efficiency interventions in low-resource healthcare settings. Using lean techniques, we identified bottlenecks to clinic flow and low-cost solutions to improve wait times. Improving flow may result in increased patient satisfaction and retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth are particularly vulnerable to acquiring HIV, yet reaching them with HIV prevention interventions and engaging and retaining those infected in care and treatment remains a challenge. We sought to determine the incidence rate of loss to follow-up (LTFU) and explore socio-demographic and clinical characteristics associated with LTFU among HIV-positive youth aged 15–21 years accessing outpatient care and treatment clinics in Kisumu, Kenya. Between July 2007 and September 2010, youth were enrolled into two different HIV care and treatment clinics, one youth specific and the other family oriented. An individual was defined as LTFU when absent from the HIV treatment clinic for ≥ 4 months regardless of their antiretroviral treatment status. The incidence rate of LTFU was calculated and Cox regression analysis used to identify factors associated with LTFU. A total of 924 youth (79% female) were enrolled, with a median age of 20 years (IQR 18–21). Over half, (529 (57%)), were documented as LTFU, of whom 139 (26%) were LTFU immediately after enrolment. The overall incidence rate of LTFU was 52.9 per 100 person-years (p-y). Factors associated with LTFU were pregnancy during the study period (crude HR 0.68, 95% CI 0.53–0.89); CD4 cell count>350 (adjusted hazard ratios (AHR) 0.59, 95% CI 0.39–0.90); not being on antiretroviral therapy (AHR 4.0, 95% CI 2.70–5.88); and non-disclosure of HIV infection status (AHR 1.43, 95% CI 1.10–1.89). The clinic of enrolment, age, marital status, employment status, WHO clinical disease stage and education level were not associated with LTFU. Interventions to identify and enrol youth into care earlier, support disclosure, and initiate ART earlier may improve retention of youth and need further investigation. Further research is also needed to explore the reasons for LTFU from care among HIV-infected youth and the true outcomes of these patients. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: Objective: To describe the challenges and successes of integrating a public-sector cervical screening program into a large HIV care system in western Kenya. Methods: The present study was a programmatic description and a retrospective chart review of data collected from a cervical screening program based on visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) between June 2009 and October 2011. Results: In total, 6787 women were screened: 1331 (19.6%) were VIA-positive, of whom 949 (71.3%) had HIV. Overall, 206 women underwent cryotherapy, 754 colposcopy, 143 loop electrical excision procedure (LEEP), and 27 hysterectomy. Among the colposcopy-guided biopsies, 27.9% had severe dysplasia and 10.9% had invasive cancer. There were 68 cases of cancer, equating to approximately 414 per 100000 women per year. Despite aggressive strategies, the overall loss to follow-up was 31.5%: 27.9% were lost after a positive VIA screen, 49.3% between biopsy and LEEP, and 59.6% between biopsy and hysterectomy/chemotherapy. Conclusion: The established infrastructure of an HIV treatment program was successfully used to build capacity for cervical screening in a low-resource setting. By using task-shifting and evidence-based, low-cost approaches, population-based cervical screening in a rural African clinical network was found to feasible; however, loss to follow-up and poor pathology infrastructure remain important obstacles. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary: Retention of patients in long term care and adherence to treatment regimens are a constant challenge for HIV, prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT), and TB programmes in sub-Saharan Africa. This study describes the implementation and outcomes of an active defaulter tracing system used to reduce loss to follow-up (LTFU) among HIV, PMTCT, TB, and HIV/TB co-infected patients receiving treatment at three Médecins Sans Frontières clinics in the informal settlement of Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya. Patients are routinely contacted by a social worker via telephone, in-person visit, or both very soon after they miss an appointment. Patient outcomes identified through 1066 tracing activities conducted between 1 April 2008 and 31 March 2009 included: 59.4% returned to the clinic, 9.0% unable to return to clinic, 6.3% died, 4.7% refused to return to clinic, 4.5% went to a different clinic, and 0.8% were hospitalized. Fifteen percent of patients identified for tracing could not be contacted. LTFU among all HIV patients decreased from 21.2% in 2006 to 11.5% in 2009. An active defaulter tracing system is feasible in a resource poor setting, solicits feedback from patients, retains a mobile population of patients in care, and reduces LTFU among HIV, PMTCT, and TB patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This retrospective analysis of routine programme data from Mbagathi District Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya shows the difference in rates of loss to follow-up between a cohort that paid 500 shillings/month (approximately US$7) for antiretroviral drugs (ART) and one that received medication free of charge. A total of 435 individuals (mean age 31.5 years, 65% female) was followed-up for 146 person-years: 265 were in the ‘payment’ cohort and 170 in the ‘free’ cohort. The incidence rate for loss to follow-up per 100 person-years was 47.2 and 20.5, respectively (adjusted hazard ratio 2.27, 95% CI 1.21–4.24, P =0.01). Overall risk reduction attributed to offering ART free of charge was 56.6% (95% CI 20.0–76.5). Five patients diluted their ART regimen to one tablet (instead of two tablets) twice daily in order to reduce the monthly cost of medication by half. All these patients were from the payment cohort. Payment for ART is associated with a significantly higher rate of loss to follow-up, as some patients might be unable to sustain payment over time. In resource-limited settings, ART should be offered free of charge in order to promote treatment compliance and prevent the emergence of drug resistance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objectives: To evaluate risk factors for treatment denial and loss to follow-up in an antiretroviral treatment (ART) cohort in a rural African setting in western Kenya. Method: Sociodemographic and clinical data of patients enrolled in an ART cohort were collected within 18 months of an observational longitudinal study and analysed by logistic and Cox regression models. Results: Of 159 patients with treatment indication 35 (22%) never started ART. Pregnancy [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 3.60, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.10–11.8; P = 0.035] and lower level of education (AOR 3.80, 95% CI 1.14–12.7; P = 0.03) were independently associated with treatment denial. The incidence of total loss of patients under therapy was 43.2 per 100 person years (pys) (mortality rate 19.2 per 100 pys plus drop out rate 24 per 100 pys). Older age [adjusted hazard ratio (AHR) 1.06, 95% CI 1.01–1.12; P = 0.04], AIDS before starting treatment (AHR 5.83, 95% CI 1.15–29.5; P = 0.03) and incomplete adherence to treatment (AHR 1.05, 95% CI 1.03–1.07; P < 0.001) were independent risk factors for death. Incomplete adherence also independently predicted drop out because of other reasons (AHR 1.06, 95% CI 1.04–1.09; P < 0.001). Conclusion: Pregnancy and lower level of education, higher age, advanced AIDS stage and impaired compliance to ART were identified as risk factors for treatment denial and death, respectively. Adequate counselling strategies for patients with these characteristics could help to improve adherence and outcome of treatment programmes in resource-limited settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Despite increasing focus on test and treat strategies for people living with HIV (PLHIV), many continue to enrol late in care and initiate antiretroviral therapy (ART) when they have advanced HIV disease., Methods: We analyzed PLHIV ≥15 years of age starting ART in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania from 2005 to 2015 based on CD4+ groups at ART initiation (≥200, 100 to 199, 50 to 99 and <50 cells/mm 3 ) to examine attrition (loss to follow-up (LTF) and death) using Kaplan-Meier estimators and Cox proportional hazards models. LTF was defined as no clinic visit >6 months; deaths were ascertained from medical records., Results and Discussion: A total of 305,443 PLHIV were included in the analysis: 118,580 (38.8%) CD4+ ≥200, 91,788 (30.1%) CD4+ 100 to 199, 44,029 (14.4%) CD4+ 50 to 99 and 51,046 (16.7%) CD4+ <50 cells/mm 3 . At 12 months after ART initiation, attrition for those with CD4+ ≥200, 100 to 199, 50 to 99 and <50 cells/mm 3 was 21.3% (95% CI 21.1 to 21.6), 21.8% (95% CI 21.6 to 22.1), 27.3% (95% CI 26.9 to 27.7) and 33.6% (95% CI 33.2 to 34.0) respectively. In multivariable models, compared to PLHIV with CD4+ ≥200 cells/mm 3 , those with CD4+ 50 to 99 cells/mm 3 had 29% increased risk of attrition (adjusted hazard ratio (AHR) 1.29, 95% CI 1.27 to 1.32) and those with <50 cells/mm 3 had 56% increased risk of attrition (AHR 1.56, 95% CI 1.53 to 1.58). Men had higher attrition compared to women across all CD4+ groups and overall were 28% more likely to experience attrition (AHR 1.28, 95% CI 1.26 to 1.29). Even after ART initiation, PLHIV with advanced disease had notably inferior outcomes with substantial gradient within the low CD4+ strata highlighting the need for targeted interventions for these populations., Conclusions: Greater efforts, including the identification of effective differentiated service delivery models, are needed to ensure that all PLHIV starting treatment can garner the benefits from ART and achieve favourable outcomes., (© 2018 The Authors. Journal of the International AIDS Society published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of the International AIDS Society.)

Most studies that follow subjects over time are challenged by having some subjects who dropout. Double sampling is a design that selects and devotes resources to intensively pursue and find a subset of these dropouts, then uses data obtained from these to adjust naïve estimates, which are potentially biased by the dropout. Existing methods to estimate survival from double sampling assume a random sample. In limited-resource settings, however, generating accurate estimates using a minimum of resources is important. We propose using double-sampling designs that oversample certain profiles of dropouts as more efficient alternatives to random designs. First, we develop a framework to estimate the survival function under these profile double-sampling designs. We then derive the precision of these designs as a function of the rule for selecting different profiles, in order to identify more efficient designs. We illustrate using data from the United States President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief-funded HIV care and treatment program in western Kenya. Our results show why and how more efficient designs should oversample patients with shorter dropout times. Further, our work suggests generalizable practice for more efficient double-sampling designs, which can help maximize efficiency in resource-limited settings., (Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)