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A randomized controlled trial was conducted in Kenya in 2020 with the objectives being to assess compliance of smallholder dairy farmers (SDF) with farm-specific mastitis and cow comfort recommendations, to determine factors associated with compliance, and to determine the impact of these recommendations in reducing cases of subclinical mastitis. A total of 114 SDFs (124 cows) were recruited into the study and randomly allocated into intervention (74 farms) and control (40 farms) groups during the first farm visit. Existing farm-level mastitis control and cow comfort strategies were assessed in both intervention and control farms. Cow parameters (e.g. udder hygiene) were observed or measured from individual cows. A California Mastitis Test (CMT) was done on all quarters and scored from 0 (negative) to 3 (strong positive). All quarters with a CMT score of 2 and 3 were treated with intramammary antibacterial cefapirin preparation according to the label (Cefalak®). Intervention farms received farm-specific mastitis and cow comfort recommendations at the end of the first visit. On the second farm visit, cow parameters were measured again, CMT was repeated on all quarters on all cows, and compliance with recommendations was assessed and given a percentage score. Control farms were then given their farm-specific recommendations. Regression models were utilized to assess associations with compliance and improvement in CMT scores between visits. Intervention farms received an average of 3.3 and 3.9 recommendations pertaining to mastitis control and cow comfort, respectively. Farms complied with an average of 2.8 and 2.1 mastitis and cow comfort recommendations, respectively, leading to an overall average compliance score of 63.2 % for all recommendations. On the first visit, CMT scores 1 and 2 were significantly higher in quarters among cows on the intervention than control farms. There was a significantly lower proportion of quarters with CMT scores 1 and 2 in the intervention group on the second visit than the first visit and no quarters with CMT score of 3. The principal farmer, type of recommendation and number of recommendations given were significantly associated with compliance to the recommendations. The principal farmer and their age group were significantly associated with quarter CMT scores improving between the first and second visits. Farm-specific mastitis and cow comfort recommendations can significantly reduce the number of cases of subclinical mastitis in SDFs and should thus be included in farmers' training. Farmers should be given a small number of recommendations at a time to enhance compliance., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest None., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Smallholder dairy farmers (SDF) in developing countries often have limited understanding on the importance of cow comfort. We conducted a randomized controlled trial with 124 cows on 114 Kenyan SDF to determine the status of cow comfort, to assess compliance to farm-specific cow comfort recommendations, and to evaluate the impacts of the farm-specific interventions on cow comfort. On the first farm visit, stall dimensions and characteristics (e.g. stall base hardness and hygiene) were measured and categorized as adequate, marginal or inadequate/absent based on cow size. Where measurements were not adequate, farm-specific cow comfort recommendations were provided in written and oral form to the randomly allocated intervention group of farms (n = 74). On the second farm visit two months later, the same measurements were taken, and percent compliance to the recommendations was evaluated. A discomfort index was arithmetically calculated based on the stall base hardness (scale was 1-3 for soft to hard) and hygiene (scale was 1-5 for clean to dirty). Multivariable linear regression models were used to determine specific associations with the discomfort index. On the first visit, the mean stall base hardness and stall hygiene scores were 1.7 and 2.3, respectively, for a mean discomfort index of 4.0. Intervention farmers were given 3.9 comfort recommendations, on average, and complied with 2.1 recommendations, significantly improving the discomfort index at visit two to 3.3. The overall compliance to the recommendations was 49.0%. In a final model, the interaction between intervention group and visit number was significantly associated with discomfort index, indicating that after adjusting for baseline discomfort indices, the intervention led to better cow comfort. Specifically, bedding type and neck rail positioning were significantly associated with discomfort index. We concluded that farmers can substantially improve cow comfort on SDF by providing recommendations to them. Farm advisors should include cow comfort recommendations to SDF., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest in all aspects of this study., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Our study aimed to evaluate farmers' compliance in implementing recommendations of farm-specific cow comfort changes, and the effects of these changes on lying time, stall cleanliness and cow cleanliness using a randomized controlled trial carried out on 100 smallholder dairy farms in Kenya, with 62 and 11 farms remaining in the intervention and control groups, respectively. On the first farm visit, data loggers were attached on lactating cows to determine lying time and questionnaires utilized to collect baseline data. Three days later, stall design and management recommendations were given to the intervention group of farmers orally and in written form. After an average of 39 ± 7 days, data loggers were re-attached, compliance was assessed, and a post-intervention questionnaire was administered to the intervention group on the third visit. Three days subsequent to the first and third visits, data loggers were removed from all cows. Data were analysed in Stata 14.2® using proportion tests and Kruskal-Wallis rank tests to compare cleanliness scores and lying time, respectively. Interaction effects between treatment groups and visits were assessed using multivariable mixed linear and logistic regression models. While 46 of the 62 intervention farmers (74%) made at least one recommended change to cow comfort, 63% of the 324 overall recommendations were implemented. The odds of a recommendation being implemented were significantly higher when:1) major recommendations were given relative to minor recommendations (OR = 6.28); 2) recommendations were related to floor characteristics (floor softness and flatness) in comparison to recommendations related to stall design (OR = 3.14). The odds of compliance were lower on: 1) farms where the farm-hands received the recommendations compared to farms that had the female principal farmer receive the recommendations (OR = 0.01); 2) farms that had recommended changes related to roof, alley and sharps fixes relative to stall design fixes (OR = 0.13). Post-intervention, stall, udder and upper hind-leg cleanliness scores improved significantly (p < 0.0001, p = 0.021 and p = 0.017, respectively) in the intervention farms but not in the control farms. There was no significant difference in lying times between intervention and control farms, with 0.6 and 0.2 h/day increases being recorded in the intervention and control groups, from the 10.9 and 10.4 h/day at baseline, respectively. Giving farm-specific cow comfort recommendations to smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya, and providing them with a participatory role in the formulation and implementation of improvement recommendations ensured good acceptance and a high degree of implementation, and led to a subsequent improvement in cow comfort and cleanliness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]