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Pinellia Tuber (the dried tuber of Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Makino [Araceae]) (PT) is a crude drug used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and Japanese Kampo medicine. PT is subjected to additional processing before use in TCM because of its toxic, while the processing has not been used in Kampo medicine. The aim of this study is to clarify the reason why the differences about the processing of PT between TCM and Kampo medicine have been appeared. We investigated successive literatures published in China and in Japan from the Han dynasty to the modern age. The descriptions about the processing of PT in China had appeared since the Later Han dynasty as washing, and after that, various processing methods have been recorded, such as boiling, steaming, making cakes, and fermenting to prepare PT malt (PTM) with various drug additives. The objective of the processing for PT was not only to remove its toxicity but to change drug properties, and several kinds of processed PT had been developed to treat different types of "phlegm" in the Ming dynasty. The current Chinese Pharmacopoeia recommends the use of processed PT to avoid the toxicity, and registers unprocessed PT as well as three kinds of processed PT except for PTM which had been deleted in 2015 edition. These processing methods for PT have been established in the Qing dynasty. The oldest description in Japan was appeared in 1363, and the processing methods had been influenced by the literatures in the Song dynasty. After that, the processed PT in Japan had mainly been PTM until the 18th century. In 1738, Shuan Kagawa wrote that PT should not be processed because its pharmacological effects disappeared and the toxicity of PT disappeared by preparing its decoction without processing. Then, the processing of PT has been unpopular, and the Japanese Pharmacopoeia has registered PT since 1939 without any processing. Compared to TCM, Japanese Kampo medicine has tended to avoid ideologism based on traditional knowledge and to adopt positivism. This policy has reflected the differences in the processing of PT between Kampo medicine and TCM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the appearance of Buddha, texts and images depicting his life have circulated across Eurasia, serving as significant mediums for disseminating Buddhist ideology. Japan has historically been influenced by the canon of Chinese Buddhism while concurrently striving to promote the indigenization of Buddhism. This endeavor reached its peak during the Edo period, notably exemplified in the Shaka goichidaiki zue, illustrated by the world-renowned artist Hokusai Katsushika. Originating from Buddhist believers, it presents an adaptation based on the socio-historical context of pre-modern Japan, particularly manifesting evident shifts in emphasizing royal authority, the salvation of females, and ethical relationships. Entering the Meiji era, this pre-modern illustrated manuscript underwent repeated printing, playing an important role in the modernization of Buddhism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On June 5, 2021, I went to Arlington National Cemetery while visiting a family in the city. I had been to Arlington many times but never thought about visiting the Cemetery. Growing up in postwar Japan, I avoided places where I might encounter excess patriotism or militarism, like Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo where fallen soldiers were deified. These sentiments made me very uncomfortable, because I could not trust powerful institutions like the government and the military. The mere presence of the Shrine was, in my mind, a sign of a resurgence of the imperial colonial military nation Japan once was and should never again become. Likewise, I had considered Arlington National Cemetery as a place to be avoided. But something-perhaps God-told me on that day that I should visit the Cemetery. I was starting a chaplain residency at a Veterans Affairs (VA) hospital in several weeks, so I felt that visiting the Cemetery might help me connect with veterans I would soon meet. I had no idea that this visit was the beginning of my long homecoming journey: learning about my family, the stories that my parents had never shared, and how their-and my own-suffering propelled me to leave my native land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The Tokyo Municipal Hibiya Public Library was established in November 1908. The purpose of this study was to examine what ideas people had for the establishment of the Tokyo Municipal Hibiya Public Library, and to identify its planning and establishment process, the cost, collections and design. Methods: Magazines, newspapers, government documents, and library bulletins from that period were investigated. This study also closely examined "The Construction Specifications for the Tokyo Municipal Hibiya Public Library" which was discovered by this study, and which provides information regarding the process of the establishment plans. The target period of this study was from 1900 to 1908. Results: The major plans for the establishing the Tokyo Municipal Hibiya Public Library were divided into three plans,: the "Small Library Plot" by Heizo Ito, the "Large Library Plot" by Zenshiro Tsuboya, and the "Medium Library Plot" by Yukichi Terada. In July 1906, a budget was made by the Tokyo City Council to build a popular library. Initially the total number of books was to be 120,000, of which 100,000 belonged to the collection of "Dulce cor Library". Sixty percent of the available books were in foreign languages. The library was built by Shiro Mitsuhashi. The library has a seating capacity of 400 people, and includes a fire-resistant book storeroom made from bricks, a children's reading room and a women's reading room. The construction specifications of the library were found in the articles in the magazine Kenchiku Sekai. At the time of its opening, the library was much larger than first planned, but the concept of it being a popular library for the citizens was achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While participating in the discourse of world religions, Japanese biographers published accounts of Muhammad's life in many genres of academic and popular books during the Meiji and Taisho eras (1868–1926). This article unravels how these biographical accounts played a crucial role in facilitating a geographical imaginary of Asia/the East which incorporated both Japan and West Asia. Situated in a radically different context from the Victorian biographers who inspired them, Japanese biographers constantly compared Muhammad to historical figures familiar to them, most notably Buddha and Nichiren, and reinterpreted the life of Muhammad, relying exclusively on European-language sources. In particular, in contrast to another strand of pan-Asianism that stressed peacefulness as an inherent quality of the East, the biographers identified Muhammad's perceived militancy and the miracles he performed as signs of the values shared by Japan and Islamic civilization. Using the person of Muhammad as a concrete piece of evidence, Japanese biographers reimagined an Eastern civilizational space that could stretch from Tokyo to Mecca. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues how the study of religion in Japan influenced the nation's conduct during the Asia-Pacific War (1931–1945). Specifically, the paper addresses the wartime national indoctrination texts of Katō Totsudō 加藤咄堂 (a.k.a. Katō Yūichirō 加藤熊一郎, 1870–1949). Although Katō was not strictly a religious scholar, analyzing Katō's texts is significant in understanding the influence of religious theory and religious studies discourse on Japanese society during the war. To illustrate this point, this paper introduces previous studies that have discussed the movements of religious scholars during the war. It then clarifies the significance of discussing Katō's texts, followed by an introduction to what has been revealed about Katō so far. The paper then examines Katō's wartime texts that discuss the relationship between war, faith and the readiness to die. The East–West comparison of views of life and death used by Katō was characterized as a wartime application of comparative religion. It was intended to emphasize Japan's superiority over other countries. Such features agitated Japanese readers to proactively enter the fight to the death through spiritual mobilization in a total war system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Jidabokuippo (JDI) (治打撲一方) has been used in Japan to alleviate contusion-induced swelling and pain since medieval times. Method: This review investigated the effects of JDI on various symptoms in patients with trauma or static blood[TM1]. The PubMed and Igaku Chuo Zasshi databases were searched until 24 December 2021. We summarize the benefits of applying JDI to inflammatory conditions, including bruises. Results: JDI has been used to resolve blood [TM1] stasis, regulate qi in trauma patients, and treat inflammatory swelling and pain caused by rheumatoid arthritis and cellulitis. As the adverse event rate associated with JDI is low (1.3%), JDI is considered a safe drug. Conclusion: JDI can be used to resolve blood[TM1] stasis in trauma patients without adverse events associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, the eastern Pacific green turtle (recognized as the subspecies Chelonia mydas agassizii, i.e., the black turtle) has occasionally been recorded around the Japanese Archipelago. However, whether its occurrence is a recent ecological response to global climate change or a response to oceanic conditions remains unknown. In the present study, we conducted a literature search using historical Japanese natural history documents called "Honzou Gaku," and present the first record of trans‐Pacific migration of the black turtle during the Edo period (1600–1868). This finding adds substantial knowledge to our understanding of the life history of this sea turtle species. Thus, a literature search on the historical heritage of other animal and plant species could provide more information about their past or lost biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research suggests that preventive measures are critical to reducing the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but evidence regarding the association between trust in government and the practice of preventive measures is limited. Objective: To examine whether the practice of preventive measures against COVID-19 differs by one's level of trust in government. Design: A cross-sectional analysis using the Japan COVID-19 and Society Internet Survey (JACSIS) conducted in August and September 2020. Participants: A nationally representative sample of Japanese individuals aged 15 through 79 years. Main Measures: The primary outcome was the composite score for COVID-19 preventive measures, defined as the percentage of preventive measures an individual reported to be practicing (out of nine measures: social distancing, wearing masks, avoiding closed spaces, avoiding crowded spaces, avoiding close contact settings, hand washing, avoiding touching one's face, respiratory hygiene, and surface disinfection). The secondary outcomes were (1) support for stay-at-home requests, (2) use of a contact-tracing app, and (3) receipt of the influenza vaccine in the previous season. Key Results: Our analysis included a total of 25,482 individuals. After adjusting for potential confounders, we found that individuals with high trust in government were likely to practice preventive measures more frequently compared to those with low trust (adjusted composite scores, 83.8% for high- vs. 79.5% for low-trust individuals; adjusted difference, +4.3 percentage points [pp]; 95% CI, +2.4 to +6.2pp; P<0.001). We also found that high trust in government was associated with higher likelihoods of support for stay-at-home requests, use of a contact-tracing app, and receipt of the influenza vaccine in the previous season. Conclusions: High trust in government was associated with a higher intensity of practicing COVID-19 preventive measures among Japanese individuals at the national level. Our findings may provide useful information to develop and design effective public health interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin of electrical activity accompanying volcanic ash plumes is an area of heightened interest in volcanology. However, it is unclear how intense an eruption needs to be to produce lightning flashes as opposed to "vent discharges," which represent the smallest scale of electrical activity. This study targets 97 carefully monitored plumes <3 km high from Sakurajima volcano in Japan, from June 1 to 7, 2015. We use multiparametric measurements from sensors including a nine-station lightning mapping array and an infrared camera to characterize plume ascent. Findings demonstrate that the impulsive, high velocity plumes (>55 m/s) were most likely to create vent discharges, whereas lightning flashes occurred in plumes with high volume flux. We identified conditions where volcanic lightning occurred without detectable vent discharges, highlighting their independent source mechanisms. Our results imply that plume dynamics govern the charging for volcanic lightning, while the characteristics of the source explosion control vent discharges. Plain Language Summary There are different types of electrical activity that occur within volcanic ash plumes. One well-known type is volcanic lightning, which creates the familiar flashes of visible light. Another, lesser-known type is called "vent discharges," which are tiny and invisible but create a peculiar signal known as continual radio frequency. Vent discharges are important because they sometimes occur very early in an eruption and may provide a way to give early warning of volcanic hazards. For this study, we used a specialized instrument called a lightning mapping array to measure the electrical activity during small eruptions at Sakurajima volcano. We explored when lightning flashes and vent discharges occurred during 97 different explosions. First, we found that the two types did not always happen in the same explosion, showing they are caused by different processes. Second, we found that vent discharges were more likely to occur when the explosive plume rose quickly, possibly because rock breakup and particles rubbing together create a static charge close to the vent. In contrast, lightning flashes occurred when the plume had high volume flux. These findings give clues about how to link electrical signals to eruptive processes for volcano monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zengaku 禪學 , the scholarly study of Zen, is a prime reason why the Japanese pronunciation 'Zen' is used in European languages as an omnibus term for Chinese Chan, Korean Seon (alt. Sŏn), Vietnamese Thiền, and Japanese Zen. Zengaku, the philological and historical study of Zen was chiefly developed in Japan and came to prominence just as Japan was opening to the West. These Zen proponents promoted Zen to the West as essentially Japanese, largely ignoring Chan, Seon, and Thiền. Within East Asia, the works of Zengaku scholars pioneered the academic or scholarly study of Zen, Chan, and Seon. Zengaku scholars produced the first dictionaries of Zen, the earliest histories, bibliographical studies and text editions. Their works became the basis for Chanxue and Seonhak. This essay examines the scholarship that modernised Zen and brought it to the attention of the modern world under the name Zengaku. It will examine the condition and status of Zen in East Asia from the 1870s to 1920s and then the knowledge available to non-East Asian audiences in the same period. Following this, it will describe the promotion of Zen to the West and a modern Japanese audience by Zengaku scholars. Lastly, it will examine the precursors of Zengaku, especially the work of Mujaku Dōchū 無着道忠 (1653–1745). It concludes that Zengaku was the basis for the development of Chanxue and Seonhak, in the sense of a modernized study of Chan and Seon that is partly informed by Western and international notions of religion, philosophy, science, psychology, and historical method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies that introduced country musicians outside the US have expanded our views on the creators of American country music. They have, however, reinforced our notion that non-US country musicians merely imitate the American "original." More recent studies have advanced the field by asking how non-US actors use country music to manipulate the borders between their countries and the US by playing country music. Yet they emphasize that non-US actors exclusively encounter US culture through country music. This paper pushes the field forward to mapping country music onto post-war Japan, locating it within a Japanese domestic context, and showing how non-US actors used country to control the ideological context created there. By doing so, it rejects the common perception that the Japanese merely imitated the "authentic" American country music. Japanese men enjoyed American country music not simply because it was American, but precisely because they could make it their own. This paper examines why certain male musicians played country music as they recovered from defeat in World War II between 1945 and the mid-1950s. To do so, it illustrates how men--country musicians and their critics alike--performed and discussed country music during this period. Ultimately, this paper argues that country musicians played country to embody an alternative masculinity that could serve as both a deviation and critique of the expectations and direction of mainstream Japanese society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As more scholars enter the field of Japanese food history, we are all becoming aware of how much more there is to learn. Our progress rests on the availability of primary sources which are plentiful for some topics but nonexistent for others, especially for premodern Japan (before 1868). This essay explores several "known unknowns," instances when my own research on sake, recipes, and restaurants faced unanswered questions due to a lack of sources. I also touch briefly on meat eating in premodern Japan, which is another longstanding issue of debate in food history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the role of legends and rituals centered on oni (demons) as a mode of place-making in early modern Japan. Focusing on evidence from Shinano (present-day Nagano prefecture), it begins with medieval oni narratives centered on Mount Togakushi and then turns toward Edo period adaptations that ushered in a host of new sites. I argue that this type of engagement with popular narratives played a vital role in place-making strategies by fostering new modes of ritual, economy, and identity as well as connections with the rest of the country. My analysis focuses on a twofold process by which these developments took place: first, the creation of local legends inspired from well-known oni tales; and second, the implementation of Buddhist rituals that promoted the legends while simultaneously placating the malignant spirits they resurrected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 1960s period witnessed the most important internal migration of Japan's population since the modern period with the definitive shift from a rural to an urban-based society. This unprecedented transformation led the Japanese central government to request visions for the prospective development of the national territory in an open competition. Responding to this call, a wide range of reports were produced and debated between 1967 and 1972, mobilizing a vast network of influential representatives in city making, such as sociologists, economists, urban planners, and architects. This article analyzes these reports on the theme of the conservation of natural and historical heritage. To support a sustainable development that was adjustable to economic and social change, the reports emphasized the aesthetic and environmental value of natural landscapes and traditional lifestyles. The reports also proclaimed the rise of an information society and stressed the growing importance of leisure and tourism activities, nowadays one of the most profitable industries worldwide. Apart from their value as interdisciplinary reflections on problems related to urban expansion with visionary qualities, the reports were also highly relevant because they influenced later policies on urban planning and heritage preservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Religion played a prominent role in the Allied Occupation of Japan (1945-1952) that followed the brutal Pacific War (1941-1945). Officially, the occupiers were to promulgate religious freedom, separate religion from the state, and encourage the Japanese people to develop a 'desire for religious freedom'. Promulgating religious freedom was the easy part. Separating religion from the state without infringing on religious freedom was far more challenging, and the ambiguous objective of instilling a desire for religious freedom in the Japanese populace was nearly impossible to measure. This review article provides a brief overview of trends in Occupation research, traces historical changes and paradoxes in Occupation religions policy and examines the unexpected and frequently ironic outcomes of that policy. It provides a cursory look into the postwar efflorescence of 'new religions' and the politically fraught category of 'State Shintō'. It closes with an overview of archives and records on the Occupation. Video abstract () [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines British responses to changes in Japanese dress during the Victorian period. The disapproval of the Japanese adoption of European clothing is shown to be linked to British anxieties regarding their political relationship and cultural engagement with Japan. The ways in which the kimono served as a touchstone for the British understanding of the country, representing an unchanging and romanticised view of the cultural identity of its Japanese wearer, is also explored. However, the kimono did not only signal 'Japaneseness', but was assimilated in British fashion as well. This article further explores how the kimono was related to issues of late nineteenth-century dress reform in Britain as well as to British unease about the cultural changes that they themselves had experienced in the wake of industrialisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The purpose of this study is to identify and examine the factors that affected the scale of ILL photocopy requests between Japanese university libraries from 1994 to 2008. Design/methodology/approach -- Based on the newly developed conceptual framework to interpret the rise and fall in ILL, more than 10 million requests, sent through a nation-wide system called NACSIS-ILL from 1994 to 2008 were quantitatively analyzed. Findings -- The number of photocopy requests for articles in foreign journals started to decrease in 2000, due to the dramatic increase of e-journal titles made accessible through "Big Deal" contracts that came into effect in 2002 as well as other similar trials prior to it. On the other hand, requests for articles in domestic journals, mostly written in Japanese, continued to increase until 2006. The main factor for this increase was the expansion of journal title coverage in bibliographic databases, which enabled users to retrieve more references. However , requests decreased in 2007, because of advances in digitization in the Japanese academic environment. Research limitations/implications -- This research proposes a conceptual model to understand document demand and service patterns observed in nation-wide ILL services. It also successfully draws a comprehensive picture of ILL in Japanese higher education institutions, based on more than 10 million request records over 15 years, and it shows how the number of ILL requests correlates with the availability of requested journals in electronic form. Originality/value -- This research proposes a conceptual model to understand document demand and service patterns observed in nation-wide ILL services. It also successfully draws a comprehensive picture of ILL in Japanese higher education institutions, based on more than 10 million request records over 15 years, and it shows how the number of ILL requests correlates with the availability of requested journals in electronic form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the developments of the journals "Kiyo," published by academic institutions in Japan. Despite the problems such as limited accessibility and lack of quality control, "Kiyo" have evolved to comprise the majority of academic journals published in the humanities and social sciences, because they fit well within the culture of Japanese academia. The recent developments in digitalization and open access to "Kiyo" will help mitigate their limited accessibility. Moreover, the increased availability of "Kiyo" articles in electronic format to a wider range of scholarly readers may encourage improvements in quality.

Japanese public libraries failed to make a significant impact with either the state or the people from close to a half century after their introduction in the 1860s. The state was under too much pressure to modernize and militarize to see any value in finding a recreational facility that served personal needs, and librarians did little to market themselves to the people to increase their support base. It was not until the state began to see a role for librarians to provide ideological thought guidance through reading material that libraries began to receive more attention and support. But the library community was hesitant to abandon traditional library services (based on free reading by individuals) in favor of social education (guided reading of mandatory texts), and as a result libraries were not effective vehicles in the state's moral suasion campaigns to ensure that all citizens were fully committed to the war effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have recovered instrumental temperature and pressure observations from Tokyo covering the periods 1825-1828, 1839-1855, and 1872-1875; from Yokohama covering the periods 1860-1871 and 1874; from Osaka covering the periods 1828-1833 and 1869-1871; and from Kobe covering the periods 1869-1871 and 1875-1888. The newly recovered records contain data before the 1870s, which is a period where, until recently, no instrumental data in Japan were believed to exist. Their addition to the previous backward extension of Japanese series, as based on the recently recovered intermittent Dejima/Nagasaki series 1819-1878, implies that the nineteenth-century extension of the Japanese instrumental record no longer contains major temporal gaps. The recovered data were used for a preliminary calculation of the west-Japan temperature (WJT) series, which is a representative temperature series for the area. The existence of a warm epoch in the 1850s over W-Japan and a downward temperature trend till the early twentieth century, as previously inferred from documentary data, is confirmed from the WJT data. The pressure data implies that the temperature differences between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are at least partly caused by a change in atmospheric circulation. Copyright © 2006 Royal Meteorological Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]