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Managers operate in a complex, uncertain environment and tend to form simplified models in order to cope with this environment and make competitive strategic decisions (i.e., cost leadership, differentiation, or focus). In this study, we use an experimental design to examine the strategic choice decision-making process in firms located in the United States and Japan. We develop several main-effect propositions regarding managerial selection of competitive strategies, depending on the competitive forces (buyer power, threat of substitutes, threat of new firm entry, and high intensity of rivalry) they are facing. We propose a main effect due to country of origin: Japanese managers prefer a cost-leadership strategy more than American managers do. We also propose several interaction effects regarding cross-national differences in strategy selection between Japanese and U.S. managers. To test our propositions, we collected experimental data from 316 U.S. executives and 459 Japanese executives. We assessed relative impacts of the competitive forces on strategic decision-making using a multilevel regression analysis. The research findings indicated that high buyer power and high substitution threat were associated with a preference for cost-leadership strategies, and Japanese managers were significantly more likely to prefer a cost-leadership strategy than U.S. managers. We also found that, under conditions of high buyer power, U.S. managers were less likely than Japanese managers to enter a market with a differentiation or focus strategy. We found little support for other interaction hypotheses, suggesting points of similarity between U.S. and Japanese managers. We conclude with a discussion of theoretical and managerial implications of our results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a cross-cultural study pertaining to foreign product perception. Researchers surveyed 100 Japanese businessmen in 1975 and evaluated their attitudes on products made in the U.S., Japan, England, Germany, and France. The evaluations were based on price and value, service and engineering, advertising and reputation, design and style, and consumers' profile. The results indicated that products in the U.S. are rated lowest in terms of careful workmanship. In terms of technical advancement German products were ranked highest. In genera Japanese products were considered reliable and reasonably priced. Several charts depicting the study results are presented.

The authors examine Japanese executives' perceptions of the veracity of various PIMS strategy principles developed from analysis of the pooled experience of businesses in the United States. They draw on a separate study of U.S. executives and report a comparison of Japanese executives' perceptions with those of U.S. executives. The findings suggest that most of the PIMS principles found in the United States are perceived by Japanese executives to apply in Japan. In addition, Japanese executives are found to perceive a firm's market position to be the most important influence on firm performance. However, the findings also indicate that Japanese and U.S. executives differ in their views on the level of veracity of many strategy issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper identifies similarities and differences in the emphases and patterns that U.S. and Japanese managers attribute to a set of 22 generic competitive methods. It highlights the different ways that Japanese and American managers combine these methods to form general business strategies. Using factor analyses and smallest space analyses, the study shows differences in business strategy patterns between managers in Japan and the U.S. Such differences reflect the organizing principles underlying the strategy approaches in U.S. and Japanese firms. The organizing principle underlying U.S. responses is the desire to find way to differentiate a firm from its competitors. In contrast, the organizing principle underlying Japanese responses is a desire to establish a comprehensive, stable and defensible position. The paper discusses the implications of these results for strategic management and suggests directions for future U.S. and Japanese comparative strategy research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent times, international comparative studies on managers’ beliefs regarding ethical/unethical leadership have increased in number. These studies focus on both Eastern and Western countries. However, although these previous studies focused on the effects of national culture, they did not pay sufficient attention to the effects of institutions. Moreover, these studies covered only a few countries. Despite Japan’s strong influence on the world economy, it has not been included in previous studies on ethical leadership. Thus, to reveal unexplored factors—particularly cultural and institutional factors—and to determine the generalizability of previous findings, this study used a qualitative research method to examine Japanese business managers’ beliefs about ethical/unethical leadership. The data revealed the convergence and divergence in beliefs regarding ethical/unethical leadership between managers in Japan and in other countries. The analysis identified mostly the same themes of ethical/unethical leadership as found in other countries albeit with different distributions. In addition, We identified new themes that may be specific to Japan or that were neglected in previous studies. Moreover, this study suggests the necessity of considering each society’s history of business ethics and current ethics-related institutional contexts in ethical/unethical leadership studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars studying upper echelons have found that executive succession can serve as an important adaptation mechanism. The bulk of these findings, however, derive from market-based governance settings, which raises an issue of contextual robustness. This study examines this issue by investigating the link between executive succession and strategic change in Japan, a context noted for relatively weak market-based corporate governance and lack of board independence. We find a greater likelihood of strategic change after non-routine executive succession, with the extent of change unaffected by firm performance. Routine succession in the case of a powerful prior president leads to less post-succession strategic change. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this research is to empirically test the impact of owner/managers' mentality on enterprise performance. Design/methodology/approach - A mail questionnaire survey was conducted on a sample of SMEs in Japan. The questionnaire was mailed to the chief executive of each of the 1,523 firms selected for the survey. The total number of usable responses received was 367, giving a response rate of 24.1 per cent. Findings - The overall results of the study show that when owner/managers of SMEs are more entrepreneurial minded in the introductory and decline stages of growth, their performance tends to be higher, and the same is true for the growth and maturity stages when they are more administrative minded. Research limitations - Implications Since this research was unique in several respects and the survey was confined to only 367 SMEs in a single country it would be useful to replicate it using larger samples under different country settings. Practical implications - The research reveals that an enterprise will be better off at the introductory stage if its managers become more entrepreneurial minded through factors such as ambition, enterprising spirit, intuition and innovation. However, as the firm grows managers need to devote more attention to administration. Originality/value - It provides far reaching implications for managers for achieving higher performance in different stages of a firm's growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Literature on Japanese transplant manufacturing firms in the automotive sector often emphasise the importance placed on attitude as opposed to skills in the hiring decisions for line workers. In this paper, a case study of one second-tier components supplier for a major Japanese automotive assembler in the Midwestern United States provides the opinions of senior managers and human resource associates regarding recruitment and selection practices. In-depth interviews, carried out over a two-week period in August 2000, are used to develop an understanding of the recruitment and selection process for line workers as well as to investigate the desired skills and value of previous Japanese experience. Results of the case study analysis are compared with two models from the literature: (1) a model of recruitment and selection at Japanese automotive-related firms in Japan and (2) a model of recruitment and selection at Japanese transplant automotive-related firms abroad. Deviations from the two models point not to a new paradigm of "second-generation" Japanese transplants - those that have moved into regions quite familiar with Japanese firms and related management and production methods - but rather to overall weaknesses in the stereotypical models. Managerial opinions within the case study firm place limited value on familiarity with a Japanese environment, considering such experience secondary to attitudes and work ethics that are in line with the philosophy of the case study firm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines similarities and differences in employee motivation management between Korean and Japanese executives of Japanese-affiliated companies in Korea, based on questionnaire surveys. The respondents' views of employee motivation factors were analysed, by contrast with motivational factors and hygiene factors (maintenance factors) developed by Herzberg. The survey results reveal that both Korean and Japanese executives realize the importance of employee motivation management, and that Japanese executives have a stronger awareness of it than Korean executives. Both recognize it for the sake of high corporate performance, employee job satisfaction and customer satisfaction. Seeing motivation factors: the majority of Korean and Japanese executives regard ‘wage and bonus increases’ as a strong motivational factor; ‘employment stability’ is recognized as a motivational factor by Korean executives; and ‘clarifying company policy and job objectives’ is the most important motivational factor to Japanese executives. Their views of these three factors are not consistent with Herzberg's theory. We also found a recognition gap between Korean and Japanese executives: ‘esteem and praise for job performance’ is a hygiene factor to Korean executives but a motivational factor to Japanese executives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a managerial overview of the role of national government in the globalization of business organizations in Malaysia. Theoretical background on managerial attitudes to the role of government in the economy; Discussion on the industrial policy of Japan; Historical background on the introduction of the National Economic Policy in 1970.

The aim of this study is to determine whether attitudinal differences between British and Japanese managers observed in the workplace can be attributed to culture or to the employment system. The findings provided substantial support for attribution to the employment system. Cultural differences between British and Japanese managers were not as large as the cultural thesis claims. The stereotyped cultural characteristics of Japanese managers - high social orientation at work and unconditional priority of work over family - were observed only in limited groups such as managers on the shop floor or senior managers. Attitudinal differences in the workplace were not simply the consequence of cultural differences, but rather to be understood as rational behavioural responses. Both British and Japanese managers' attitudes were considered to be a rational response to their employment systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of survey studies on corporations' institutionalization of ethics has been done in the U.S. and Japan. Among them, one Japanese study suggests that company policy is the most influential factor in managers' ethical decision-making and behavior. This empirical evidence suggests that, in Japan, company efforts to institutionalize ethics are effective in improving business behavior. The author examines this by describing three case studies of Japanese managers' ethical decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a comparison of the quality attitudes of executives of American and Japanese firms. The authors note that the Japanese have been identified as achieving high levels of success in industries involving high volume repetitive manufacturing and have done so while maintaining superior quality. They note that one strategic measure that has helped the Japanese maintain this level of performance is just-in-time production. They discuss the distinction of management attitudes that assume quality is free and those who believe quality has a price. They test their idea that Japanese managers will favor the former notion while American managers will prescribe to the latter.

In the United States, a series of survey studies have been done to examine corporate managers' views of business ethics and various business practices (Baumhart, 1961; Brenner and Molander, 1977; Vitell and Festervand, 1987). This paper is a replication study conducted in Japan of those American studies. The results of the study suggest that Japanese managers tend to be more situational in their ethical orientation than Americans. The results also show that the company policy on ethics is the most important factor influencing Japanese managers' ethical decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In staffing their overseas operations, Japanese firms generally maintain a view that prime positions should he held by the home-country personnel. Having thus decided not to follow the European or American pattern of overseas operations, Japanese firms continue to rely very heavily on their own managerial resources to run fast-expanding operations abroad. However, contrary to a general impression that Japanese managers are adept at working in foreign environments, our study of Japanese subsidiaries in Hong Kong points out that the success rate of their expatriate assignments is not necessarily as high as the figures widely reported by studies conducted elsewhere. This article will attempt to determine the causes of problems related to managerial assignments abroad by examining the practices employed by Japanese firms in the selection and training of managers for overseas assignments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Management style is associated with McGregor and his Theory X-Theory Y, which he introduced in 1960. Comparatively little change in ideas about preferred styles took place throughout the sixties and seventies, once McGregor had established his approach, until around 1976 or so when social scientists began to look more closely into Japan's successful formula.
As a result, one group of investigators claim to have identified an A style which grows out of American culture and a J style which grows out of the Japanese. These differ fundamentally in essential details and one new approach is to seek a hybrid style, known by the investigators as the Z style, which incorporates the best of both cultures.
The terms A, J and Z, though not yet in wide usage, are beginning to creep into the literature and might eventually find their way into the manager's vocabulary, but in any case, the review of these new styles makes a valuable contribution to the study of management style. As seminar material this article is important in that it relates management style to the socio-political environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents business management-related news items, as of January 1983. Possibility that population statistics explain Japan's low labor turnover and high productivity in contrast to those in the United States; Relation between top management's opinion and the company's long-term survival; Trends in research and development spending.

The article presents an abstract of a dissertation entitled "The Global Skills, Knowledge and Attitudes Senior Business Executives Will Require by the Year 2005: Compared and Contrasted by American, European and Japanese Executives and Academicians: A Multimethod Study," by Kelly Jett Murphrey. This study was undertaken to determine the global skills, knowledge and attitudes that will be required of senior business executives by the year 2005 and to compare and contrast these findings between American, European and Japanese business executives and academicians. In Phase I, 23 multidisciplinary elite interviews produced 105 global challenges executives will be facing. In Phase II, a delphi panel determined 97 global skills, knowledge, attitudes, and educational background items that executives will need to possess. The panel consisted of U.S. university business faculty members, corporate executives, and government international trade experts. In Phase III, 954 questionnaires were sent to American, European and Japanese business executives and academicians for the purpose of ascertaining a degree of importance for the items determined in Phase II.

The article presents the results of a study which examined the extent to which age, organizational and top management team tenure, and graduation from a prestigious university affects the rate of executive-level turnover in Japanese firms. The study indicated that differences in age, team tenure, and prestige in the university lead to higher turnover, particularly among younger executives. Executives under the age of 51 experienced a turnover rate of 100%. Firm size, performance, and industry membership did not affect these relationships.

Presents excerpts from a roundtable discussion participated in by officers of major Japanese corporations, about the way business operates in Japan. Business ethics; Group psychology; Public relations; Labor unions. INSETS: BSR FLASHBACK: 1983;Bullhorn Durham;Japanese Green Acres;1991 United States Car Market

This study was an investigation of the relationship between multicultural experiences and moral development. A sample of 227 purchasing managers was assessed in relation to their multicultural experiences and moral development as measured by the Defining Issues Test (Rest, 1979). Results indicated that moral development is significantly positively related to multicultural experiences, particularly the depth of the experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article combines a game-theoretic framework and a comparative analysis to study the impact of the Great Depression on private welfare capitalism. Recharacterizing welfare capitalism as an implicit-contract equilibrium, the article documents parallel institutional developments in the United States and Japan in the 1920s and the process of bifurcation thereafter. In the United States, the breach of contract by major employers induced by the depression led to the rise of explicit contracts and legal enforcement institutions. By contrast, the less severe depression in Japan allowed the maintenance of implicit contracts and the formation of complementary labor laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been speculated that the conflict behaviors of Chinese and Japanese managers are more or less the same since both cultures are considered as collectivistic and high-contextual; and they inherit Confucian teachings as the cornerstone of their social and moral codes. The purposes in this study were to investigate whether there was a difference between the way that the managers of these 2 countries handle conflicts and whether the conflict behavior of these managers was influenced by traditional Confucian values. The results indicated that there was little difference found between them in terms of value orientations even though Japanese managers tended to employ more assertive styles than the PRC Chinese managers do in dealing with conflict situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]