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Following the tenets of positive psychology, many researchers have explored the realm of teachers' emotions in the past decades. However, the number of studies observing teachers' psycho-emotional factors from a cross-cultural lens has been negligible. To fill this gap, This study examined the association among apprehension, resilience, organizational mattering, and psychological well-being of 411 Indonesian and 285 Iranian English language teachers. The structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses of the data obtained from four questionnaires indicated that while the language teachers' apprehension was weakly correlated with the other factors, the other variables were strongly correlated. Furthermore, the results showed that resilience and organizational mattering were strong predictors of teachers' overall well-being. The cross-cultural comparison of the results revealed that the Indonesian teachers enjoyed more resilience and seemed to cope better with challenging and apprehensive situations. Identifying and regulating negative emotions, like apprehension, can potentially pave the way for policymakers and teacher educators to empower teachers to survive and thrive in the stressful conditions of their profession.

Students' mental health quality in schools significantly influences the development and increase of students' research and questioning abilities. Few studies have sought to investigate the role of images and attitudes towards curiosity (CIAC) on elementary student depression and anxiety, and fear of consequences of academic success (FCAS). This study examined the effects of images and attitudes towards curiosity on depression and anxiety, and fear of consequences of academic success in elementary students by mediating the roles of critical thinking (CT). Results from a sample of 450 elementary students in Iran showed that the direct path coefficients of images of and attitudes towards curiosity to fear of consequences of academic success and depression and anxiety were not significant. However, with the inclusion of critical thinking as a mediating variable, the indirect effect coefficient was significant. Additionally, there were positive relationships between images and attitudes towards curiosity and critical thinking.

The current study investigated the associations among trait perfectionism, worry about mistakes, mistake rumination, L2 anxiety, and willingness to communicate in adolescents. A key element was examining the psychometric properties of a new measure of worry about mistakes as well as the Mistake Rumination Scale and the short Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale and its two dimensions (i.e., self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism). Our participants were 954 Iranian adolescent English learners. Psychometric tests supported the psychometric properties and use of the mistakes and perfectionism measures. Correlation analyses indicated that both trait perfectionism dimensions were associated with mistake rumination and worry about mistakes, and socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with L2 anxiety. However, self-oriented perfectionism was associated with greater willingness to communicate. Further analyses showed that worry about mistakes and mistake rumination mediated the association that socially prescribed perfectionism had with L2 anxiety. The vulnerabilities of adolescent perfectionists are discussed in terms of the approach-avoidance conflict as it relates to worry about mistakes and pressures to be perfect. It is evident that adolescents who are vulnerable must learn cognitive and emotional regulation techniques to effectively manage mistakes and the pressure to be perfect.

This exploratory study investigates how international students perceive and experience communication challenges in Iran's higher education context. This study explores the real-life experiences of international students enrolled in various academic programs. This study employs a qualitative approach using interviews to gather data. This study involved 70 international students from different countries. Participants were enrolled in various programs at Iranian universities. The findings revealed five communication challenges: "linguistic barriers," "cultural differences," "lack of confidence," "ineffective teaching practices," and "poor teacher rapport." As mentioned by the participants, these challenges influence effective communication and participation in academic settings. This study found that these communication challenges often co-occur together and can lead to other communication challenges. In this regard, linguistic barriers among international students can contribute to a lack of confidence, and ineffective teaching practices can lead to language barriers. The most common pattern observed in the data was linguistic barriers leading to a lack of confidence. This study emphasizes the importance of addressing these challenges to establish a more inclusive and engaging learning environment for international students. By acknowledging and actively addressing the communication challenges faced by international students, educators and policymakers can play a crucial role in establishing a supportive and inclusive learning environment that enhances students' communication skills and overall academic success.

This study aimed to investigate the mediating role of social self-efficacy in the relationship between parental control and social anxiety. The study population comprised all first and second-year high school students studying in Ahvaz County during the academic year 2020 to 2021. A total of 373 (53.08% female and 46.92% male) students were selected using multistage cluster sampling. The mean age ("SD") of the participants was 15.06 (2.4) years. The data were collected using the Parental Psychological Control Scale (PPCS), the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A), and the Self-Efficacy for Social Situations Scale (SESS). The reliability of the research tools was assessed using Cronbach's alpha method, and path analysis was used to analyze the data. The results showed that both achievement-oriented and dependency-oriented parental control was directly related to social self-efficacy, which, in turn, was significantly related to social anxiety. Moreover, social self-efficacy completely mediated the relationships between achievement-oriented and dependency-oriented parental control with social anxiety. Therefore, reducing parental psychological control can increase adolescents' level of social self-efficacy, which can subsequently decrease their social anxiety.

Smart Classroom Management (SCM) is an approach proposed by Linsin (2013) that takes into account students' needs and interests in class. It has four main strategies: Planning, Organization, Leadership, and Control. This study investigated experimentally the role of English as a Foreign Language teachers' use of SCM in response to learners' second language (L2) anxiety, engagement (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive), and language achievement. To gauge the students' L2 anxiety, six items out of the Dörnyei's (2005) L2 Motivational Self System were used. To measure student engagement, the Student Engagement Scale (SES) was employed. To conduct the research, a mixed methods design (integrating experimental and interview methods) was utilized. In the experimental phase, two classes at the same level were selected. In the experimental group, a treatment that was prepared based on SCM strategies was utilized. In the qualitative phase, four students of the experimental class were voluntarily interviewed about the effects of using SCM strategies on their learning. The results demonstrate that using SCM strategies as a treatment, that was prepared based on students' needs and a humanistic approach, had a significant impact on learners' engagement and its subscales up to 46%. Moreover, applying SCM was influential in reducing students' L2 anxiety and enhancing language achievement. The findings of this study are expected to inspire policy makers, teacher educators, and supervisors to facilitate the implementation of SCM in language classes.

The role of the parents is crucial in the children's effective functioning, having a long-term effect on the physical, mental and social health of the individuals. Sense of coherence is one of the most important elements of mental health, having a significant effect on the various aspects of life. So do parental goal emphasis by setting the main directions for the children. The current survey aimed to study the impact of sense of coherence and the perceived parental goal emphasis for teenagers' anxiety disorder. 80 of these students (40 suffering from anxiety disorder and 40 normal individuals) were selected due to a questionnaire about anxiety and sampling method, considering the goal of the research. The sense of coherence questionnaire was filled by students' mothers, and to understand parents, the perceived parental goal emphasis questionnaire was filled by the students themselves. The results were calculated and analysed by a statistical program called SPSS (V.20) with MANOVA on the Dependent variables test. The results indicate that the sense of coherence was different in two groups of mothers and students than anxiety disorder and normal individuals. It shows that sense of coherence had a higher rate in normal students' mothers. Also, the orientation senses of parents and its component had a huge superiority over students with an anxiety disorder than normal.

This study investigates the dynamic nature of second language willingness to communicate (L2WTC) exploring the numerous factors that contribute to the construct. Drawing upon the sociocognitive perspective, we analyzed the environmental, individual, and linguistic factors that influence the development of L2WTC in an Iranian language learning context. Data were collected through interviews, stimulated-recall sessions, journal keeping, and observations from an intact class of five students. The environmental factors identified throughout the analysis stage were interlocutor familiarity, topic, teacher influence, task type, discussion dynamics, and family dynamics. The individual factors that were found to play a role in the development of L2WTC included anxiety, motivation, self-confidence, security, shyness, perfectionism, perceived need for the target language use, cultural identity, personality, interest in the topic, fear of failure, seeking validation, cultural adaptation, and emotional state. Finally, perceived and actual linguistic competence were among the linguistic factors that influenced L2WTC. Overall, the findings of this study confirmed that L2WTC is a multifaceted complex system that is constantly reacting to environmental changes.

Relatively few studies in the field of second language acquisition have undertaken to investigate the interrelationships of constellations of individual difference variables. This is certainly true of how complexes of ID factors impact motivation to learn an additional language. In order to address this gap, the paper reports a study that examined the ways in which enjoyment, anxiety, boredom, L2 grit and self-perceived competence interact with each other and affect motivated learning behaviour in the case of 238 Iranian students majoring in English. The data were collected through an online questionnaire and, following confirmatory factor analysis, were subjected to path analysis. Among other things, the results showed that intended effort was the consequence of a complex interplay of factors, with the combined impact of these factors not always being obvious. It was also revealed that L2 motivation may in some circumstances be positively influenced by academic emotions that are generally considered to have a detrimental effect on L2 learning (i.e. anxiety, boredom).

Applied linguistics has recently seen a surge in research and methodological approaches to do stronger studies. One important factor affecting such a new movement is the researchers' individual differences in shaping their research repertoire. Therefore, this study, which employs a path-analytic approach, investigates the interrelationship between three significant individual factors in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) context: research self-efficacy, anxiety, and motivation. This nationwide survey included 561 male and female Iranian MA students studying TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language). The researchers administered three adopted instruments, namely the research motivation scale, the research anxiety scale, and the research self-efficacy scale. The path-analytic findings revealed such interrelationships among the three factors. In particular, the findings indicated that there is a negative relationship between research anxiety and motivation to conduct research. In our study, however, the relationship between research self-efficacy and motivation is positive. These evidence-based findings can help policymakers shape an evidence-based research policy. Recommendations and implications of the results for policymakers, research methodologists, research instructors, and MA students are discussed.

This study aimed to examine grit and its components (i.e. perseverance of effort and consistency of interest) in the foreign language (L2) classrooms by investigating its relations to personal best goals, L2 emotions (i.e. enjoyment and anxiety) and L2 achievement. We further examined whether grit could predict L2 achievement when other constructs are included in the analyses. For this purpose, a total of 226 participants who were studying English in a language institute completed the questionnaire. When grit was the only predictor of L2 achievement, results indicated that only perseverance of effort could significantly predict L2 achievement. However, when other predictors were included in the analyses, neither of grit components could predict L2 achievement. We further found that both grit components predicted L2 anxiety, while only perseverance of effort predicted L2 enjoyment and personal best goals. Finally, we found that perseverance of effort was indirectly related to L2 achievement through personal bests. These findings show the problematic role of consistency of interest in predicting L2 achievement reflecting the arguments made in the field of education. Results of the study provide us with important findings concerning the mechanism underlying the relations between grit and L2 achievement and how this relation might be mediated through personal best goals.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to ascertain the relationship between EFL teachers' perception of the intended and unintended consequences of formative assessment (FA) decisions and their sense of self-efficacy and anxiety toward data-driven decision-making (DDDM). Design/methodology/approach: A correlational research design and correlational/regression analysis was utilized to conduct this study. In addition, a thematic analysis was conducted of participants' responses to the open-ended questions. Findings: Descriptive statistics suggest that most EFL teachers perceived both intended and unintended consequential validity of their FA decisions with a moderate level of DDDM self-efficacy and a low level of anxiety. The results of the correlational analysis indicated a strong positive relationship indicating that those with higher teachers' perceptions of consequential validity of formative assessment (TPCVFA) scores tended to report higher DDDM efficacy. The results of the correlational analysis also indicated that a significant relationship did not exist between TPCVFA scores and DDDM anxiety. Finally, multiple regression analyses revealed that TPCVFA was a significant predictor of DDDM efficacy; however, TPCVFA was not a significant predictor of DDDM anxiety. Originality/value: Data collected from 114 Iranian EFL teachers using the Data-Driven Decision-Making Efficacy and Anxiety Inventory (3D-MEA, Dunn et al. 2013a) and the TPCVFA questionnaire, which was self-developed and validated for the current study.

Social emotions such as shame and guilt are critical to social-emotional development in any culture because they help children and adolescents learn to adhere to the social rules and norms of their culture. However, most instruments that currently measure these emotions were validated only in samples from Western countries. This study aimed to translate and validate the "Brief Shame and Guilt Questionnaire for Children" (BSGQ-C) in children and adolescents living in Iran. A total of 453 children and adolescents aged 8 to 16 years filled out the BSGQ-C, consisting of 2 scales (Guilt: 6 items; Shame: 6 items) and questionnaires for social anxiety and worry. Factorial validity was confirmed by the intended two-factor structure, with an adequate test-score reliability for the scales. Concurrent validity was also confirmed: as expected, shame but not guilt was related to symptoms of social anxiety and worry.

Given the inherent association of interpreting with feelings of anxiousness, the subject of interpreting poses a formidable challenge for students in this field. A large number of prospective interpreters assert that they are unable to complete the assignment to a satisfactory level because they are unable to get past their fear. The harmful effect of anxiety on the interpreting performance of student trainees could result in failure and fully inhibit their accomplishment. Despite the growing recognition of anxiety as a significant challenge in interpreting education, there is a lack of comprehensive studies investigating the specific factors contributing to anxiety in consecutive interpreting and effective strategies for its reduction. To address this issue and in order to identify the factors contributing to trainees' anxiety and those that might help to reduce consecutive interpreting (CI) anxiety, thirty students were chosen to participate in semi-structured interviews. Different factors exerting an effect on the anxiety levels of Iranian CI pupils were identified through qualitative research. These factors were categorized into six groups, i.e., individual, input (language-related factors, speaker-related factors), note- taking (inappropriate note-taking skill, lack of creativity in taking notes), environmental (noise and distraction, peer-related factors), output (meaning transfer, delivery), and teacher-related (testing, teachers' behavior). Moreover, the study found that factors to reduce anxiety in consecutive interpreting could be classified as teacher-related and trainee-related factors each with additional sub-factors.

The present study aims to investigate the correlation between university students' satisfaction and anxiety in online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iran. To this aim, using a random sampling method, a sample of 430 male (n=150) and female (n=230) university students were selected at Ayatollah Borujerdi University. They filled out two questionnaires: one measuring their satisfaction and the other one measuring their anxiety in online classes. To triangulate the quantitative data, 22 university students completed a reflective written statement. To analyze the collected data, a Pearson correlation analysis, a multiple regression analysis, and a thematic coding analysis were used. Findings evidenced a moderate negative correlation between the participants' satisfaction and anxiety in online classes. Additionally, results documented that instructor, technology, and outcomes factors had the largest effects on the participants' anxiety in online classes. Complementary with the quantitative findings, the results of the reflective written statements yielded four overarching themes, including 'instructors are facilitators', 'technology makes learning easier', 'outcomes are more promising', and 'interacting with others is poor'. Finally, in light of the findings, a range of implications is suggested.

Language teachers tolerated major challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. In such stressful teaching environments, Language Teacher Immunity (LTI) was introduced to function as a protective armor. This study explored the potential contributions of teacher occupational stress, foreign language teaching enjoyment, and teaching experience to LTI formation in Iranian EFL teachers during the pandemic in terms of (1) their pairwise associations, (2) traces of difference in those associations, and (3) their predictive power. A total of 208 Iranian EFL teachers were non-randomly selected, grouped into the novice and the experienced, and surveyed with validated questionnaires. Multiple correlation analyses depicted a positive pairwise relationship between LTI, occupational stress, teaching experience, and teaching enjoyment; a negative pairwise relationship between occupational stress, teaching experience, and teaching enjoyment; and no significant relationship between teaching experience, and teaching enjoyment in both groups. Differences in the observed associations were statistically significant only for LTI/teaching experience, and LTI/occupational stress in both groups. Moreover, multiple regression analysis indicated that occupational stress and teaching enjoyment could explain 47.3% of the LTI variance in the experienced and only 14.9% in the novice teachers. Findings implied that the developed LTI in Iranian EFL teachers was productive and a consequence of the COVID-19 crisis.

The present quantitative study intended to investigate the effect of Iranian EFL learners' pronunciation anxiety (PA) and pronunciation motivation (PM) on their L2 willingness to communicate (L2 WTC) in English classes. Additionally, it aimed at identifying which of these two independent variables (PA or PM) could better predict their L2 WTC. To these aims, a convenience sample of 134 upper-intermediate EFL learners were recruited from two private language institutes in one of the large cities of Iran. Their proficiency level had already been determined by the institutes using written and oral placement tests. To gather the necessary data, three questionnaires, namely, Baran-Lucarz's (2017) PA, and PM, and Simic's (2014) WTC questionnaires were used. Descriptive and inferential statistics were utilized to answer the research question of the study. Findings indicated that both variables under study, PA and PM, had significant correlations with learners' L2 WTC. However, although results suggested that both independent variables predicted the learners' L2 WTC, PA was found to be a stronger predictor. Implications of the study findings and suggestions for further research are also offered.

This study investigated Iranian English as a foreign language teachers' attachment styles and possible influential factors such as age, teaching experience, gender, and educational degree. The participants were 108 female and 79 male Iranian English teachers, chosen through convenience and snowball sampling. Using Google forms, a researcher-made questionnaire was sent to the participants. There was a positive relationship between age and a secure style, and a negative relationship between fearful and preoccupied styles and age. Further, there was a positive correlation between a secure style and teaching experience, and a negative relationship between fearful and preoccupied styles and teaching experience. Male teachers were more secure, and educational degree made no difference in secure and preoccupied styles.

E-learning anxiety plays a key role in students' success in online courses. One of the factors that may affect students' e-learning anxiety is computer self-efficacy (CSE). However, the role of CSE in high school students' e-learning anxiety has remained unexplored in the Iranian context. Therefore, the present mixed-methods study purports to explore the role of CSE in Iranian high school students' e-learning anxiety. To this end, for the quantitative part, 410 female high school students were selected, as well as for the qualitative part, 30 female high school students were selected using a random sampling method. The required data were collected using a computer self-efficacy questionnaire, an anxiety in online classes questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews. The collected data were analyzed through a Pearson correlation analysis, a multiple-regression analysis, and a content analysis. Results revealed a strong negative correlation between the students' CSE and e-learning anxiety. Further, the findings documented that the factors of CSE (i.e., beginning skills, mainframe skills, and advanced skills) determined the high school students' e-learning anxiety. Moreover, the complementary qualitative findings yielded four overarching themes: 'promoted digital literacy', 'increased problem-solving', 'increased learning satisfaction', and 'enhanced self-regulated learning'. Finally, a range of implications is suggested for different stakeholders.

Given the importance of assessment in language education, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of interactionist and interventionist Dynamic Assessment (DA) on EFL learners' perfectionism, willingness to communicate (WTC), and foreign language anxiety (FLA). The participants were 166 pre-intermediate EFL learners in two public schools and a language institute. They were divided into three groups and given three separate questionnaires to measure their perfectionism, WTC, and FLA before the treatment. During 14 sessions, groups A and B received instruction using interactionist DA and interventionist DA, respectively. Group C was instructed conventionally. After the treatment, they were given the same three questionnaires. The participants' responses to the questionnaire items were turned to scores on a Likert-like scale. The collected data were analyzed using one-way ANCOVA. The results showed no significant differences among the groups in terms of their perfectionism and willingness to communicate. Although there was no significant difference between the interactionist and interventionist models of DA, they were both significantly more effective than the control condition on learners' FLA. This means that DA, regardless of its type, has a facilitative role in reducing anxiety in a foreign language setting. These findings can have implications for teachers, students, and material developers.

Students who are abused in various ways are at a higher risk for psychological problems such as depression and suicidal ideation. Accordingly, this study aimed to investigate the mediating role of psychological problems and perceived social support in the relationship between cyber victimization and suicidal behavior. The participants in this cross-sectional study were 250 adolescents, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth-grade students (aged 13--18 years) in Bushehr, Iran. The instruments used to collect the data were the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R), and Cyberbullying/Victimization Experiences Questionnaire. SPSS-25 and AMOS-24 software were used for data analysis. The indirect and negative effects of perceived social support showed that support (from family members and significant others) is associated with reduced suicidal behavior in students experiencing cyber victimization. Moreover, the indirect and positive effects of psychological problems showed that cyber victimization increases the risk of students experiencing symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress, and may lead to increased suicidal behavior in them. The experience of cyberbullying victimization in students is associated with their suicidal behavior. These students need treatment through psycho-educational interventions or even psychotherapy in some cases.

Although a mass of studies has demonstrated the effectiveness of scaffolding through group-dynamic assessment (G-DA) in fostering English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' language skills and components, its contributions to developing psychological constructs, such as motivation, learning anxiety (LA), and willingness to communicate (WTC) have remained largely unexplored in the context of Iranian high schools. Thus, this study purported to disclose the contributions of G-DA to Iranian high school students' motivation, LA, and WTC. For these purposes, 124 grade 11 students were chosen through a random sampling method at Shahed High School in Borujerd City, Iran, homogenized through the Oxford Quick Placement test (OQPT), and randomly allocated as a control group (CG) (n = 23) and an experimental group (EG) (n = 23). Afterward, a pre-test, interventions (for 16 one-hour sessions held two times a week as an extra-curricular program), and a post-test were implemented. The results of the independent samples t-tests evidenced that EG's motivation significantly improved compared to CG after the interventions. Additionally, the findings revealed that the G-DA-based instruction significantly contributed to relieving EG's LA. Further, the results uncovered that a statistically significant difference existed between EG and CG concerning the gains in WTC. The findings gained in this study are anticipated to contribute significantly to the various EFL settings, as well as they offer a variety of recommendations and implications for relevant stakeholders.

The aim of this study was to predict the academic emotions based on spiritual well-being and life satisfaction in students of Shahrekord Girls' Technical and Vocational School. This was a descriptive correlational study. The study population consisted of all students of Shahrekord Girls' Technical and Vocational School in the 2018-2019 school year. A total of 210 students were selected by the stratified random sampling. The data were collected using the achievement emotions questionnaire (AEQ) (Pekrun, 2005), the spiritual well-being (SWB) scale (Paloutzian and Ellison, 1983) and The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener, 1985). Statistical methods and multivariate regression analysis were applied to analyze the data. The results showed that spiritual well-being could predict the academic emotions like pride ([beta] = 20%) and life satisfaction could predict the academic emotions such as enjoyment ([beta] = 26%), anxiety ([beta] = 24%), anger ([beta] = 20%), hopelessness (? = 31%) and boredom ([beta] = 41%).

Student evaluation apprehension as one of the detrimental factors in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context, reduces and gradually diminishes student participation in classroom activities, since learners are mostly concerned with how others (teacher and classmates) evaluate/judge their performance. Due to the fact that the studies considering the important role of student evaluation apprehension are scarce in number, this study was conducted to validate the newly-designed questionnaire via exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and find the relationship between student evaluation apprehension and academic achievement, gender, and educational level of 258 EFL students. The results from EFA, CFA, and reliability analyses revealed that the new questionnaire is a valid and reliable instrument measuring EFL students' evaluation apprehension. Moreover, a significant negative correlation was observed between student evaluation apprehension and academic achievement. Besides, it was found that females experience evaluation apprehension more than males, and BA students were also found to have more evaluation apprehension than their MA counterparts.

This study examined the effect of feedback, feed up (comments on goals and students' success in achieving goals) and feed forward (comments on the next step in learning during the semester) on writing motivation, writing self-efficacy, and writing anxiety. Two hundred and ten female intermediate language learners (age[subscript mean] = 17.2) were assigned to seven experimental conditions: feedback, feed up, feed forward, feedback + feed up, feedback + feed forward, feed up + feed forward, and feedback + feed up + feed forward (n = 30 for each group). Based on group assignment, the participants received feedback, feed up, and feed forward for 12 sessions and took writing motivation, writing self-efficacy, and writing anxiety scales as pretest and posttest. The results of MANOVA and paired samples t-test comparisons indicated that groups that received feedback significantly improved in terms of self-efficacy. In addition, groups who received feed up and feed forward significantly improved in terms of writing motivation. The results also showed that the combination of feedback, feed up and feed forward could decrease learners' writing anxiety. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that teachers present feed up and feed forward along with feedback to improve non-linguistic aspects of L2 writing among their students.

During the prolonged COVID-19 pandemic, anxiety and depression were common among caregivers and parents more prone to adopt harsh disciplinary techniques when angry or stressed. The purpose of this study was to investigate if there are any differences in parents' disciplinary strategies following social distancing efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic. An online questionnaire was completed by a convenience sample of parents (N = 605) and mothers (n = 533; 88.1%) aged 37.80 years old (SD = 5.66; range = 20-59) who lived with children aged 6-12 years in Iran during the COVID-19 pandemic. Iran's Multiple Indicator Demographic and Health Survey questionnaire was used to gauge child discipline. There was an increase in shaking (1.8%), shouting and yelling (15.5%). The findings of this study serve as a reminder to researchers and government officials that child abuse and violence are more likely to occur during stressful times and provide the scientific foundation for the development of tailored psychological treatment.

As the frontline of our education system, teachers endure greater job-related stress than other professionals, even under the best of circumstances. While they were already exposed to certain stressors affecting their emotional health, the pandemic outbreak introduced new challenges putting teachers at risk of experiencing higher rates of emotional distress. This longitudinal study aimed to identify changes in teaching stressors and teachers' coping strategies in the period before the pandemic to the immediate outbreaks of COVID-19 in Fall 2020. In addition, we examined the correlation of teachers' coping approaches with stress, anxiety, and depression to understand if coping strategies correlate and predict such emotional distress. To this end, 376 English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers in Iran in the first wave and 351 in the second wave completed a battery of validated inventories capturing their emotional distress, teaching stressors, and coping approaches. The mean scores of the stressors and coping strategies across two waves indicated significant shifts toward using functional coping strategies upon experiencing new demands. Furthermore, we found that novice teachers experienced higher rates of stress and anxiety, which were positively associated with dysfunctional coping strategies. The results of the stepwise regression analysis with (dys)functional coping strategies indicated that coping mechanisms significantly account for 25% of variances in stress, anxiety, and depression. The implications of the study regarding promoting teacher mental health through identifying the risk factors associated with dysfunctional coping strategies have been discussed.

This study investigated the relationship between need for closure and need for cognition and foreign language anxiety and enjoyment. The participants of the study were 232 EFL learners at a university in Iran. Self-report questionnaires on need for closure, need for cognition, foreign language classroom anxiety and foreign language enjoyment were administered. The results of path analysis indicated that different aspects of need for closure and need for cognition predicted foreign language anxiety and enjoyment both directly and indirectly. The findings of the study highlight that the ways in which language learners' approach or avoid language knowledge and information play an important role in their emotions toward foreign language learning.

Foreign language anxiety (FLA) has extensively been reported to interfere with second language learning and performance. To mitigate anxiety, researchers have called for the inclusion of technology into foreign language classes and providing learners with corrective feedback on their performance. One factor that may affect the comprehensibility of such feedback is whether it is carried out through the learners' first language (L1) or second language (L2). As a preliminary endeavour, the present study employed a sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach to investigate the effects of using L1, as compared with L2, during mobile-assisted oral peer feedback (OPF) on speaking performance and anxiety of 32 Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. To shed further light on the initial findings, semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with 23 volunteered participants. The results verified the significant advantage of L1 OPF over L2 OPF in lowering the participants' FLA within a computer-mediated communication (CMC) context. Mobile-assisted OPF was also deemed efficacious in enhancing the participants' oral proficiency, self-confidence, willingness to communicate, risk-taking, engagement, and self-directed performance.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the reasons behind teachers' negative attitudes about classroom observation. This multiple-case study interviewed five teachers from different private language schools in Iran. The themes emerging from in-depth interviews suggest that the negative attitudes could be related to the observer effect, teacher's performance anxiety, lack of external motivation, ambiguity of the purpose of observation, the hierarchical nature of teacher-supervisor relationship, job insecurity and lack of sense of belonging, disregarding the developmental level of the supervisee, accompanying observation with no other techniques, lack of teacher autonomy, improper quality, quantity, and frequency of the visits, improper quality and quantity of feedbacks, improper quality of communicating the feedback.

This study examined the effects of praise for intelligence and praise for effort on Iranian EFL learners' language mindsets, perceived communication competence, speaking anxiety, and willingness to communicate (WTC). The students in three English classes (N = 63, all junior high school students) in a private language institute filled in self-report scales on language mindsets, perceived communication competence, speaking anxiety, and WTC, and then were assigned to praise for effort, praise for intelligence, and control conditions for 14 classroom communication sessions. They answered the same scales in the last session of the experiment. The results of quantitative analysis indicated that praise for effort enhanced learners' growth mindsets, communicative competence, and WTC, and decreased their speaking anxiety. In contrast, praise for intelligence and no praise decreased students' growth mindsets. Praise for intelligence further decreased students' WTC and increased their speaking anxiety. Follow-up qualitative data gathered by interviews with 12 students further suggested that praise for effort facilitated learners' WTC by increasing their growth mindsets and lowering their speaking anxiety. Finally, we discussed practical implications for how language teachers enhance students' success in classroom communication.

This study aimed at exploring the effect of implementing writing metacognitive strategies via flipped classrooms on the Iranian EFL learners' achievement, anxiety, and self-efficacy in writing. The study involved 45 intermediate learners of both genders, selected using a random convenience sampling method. The participants' English proficiency was measured by the Preliminary English Test, and they were placed in two groups: experimental group (23 learners) and control group (22 learners). In the former group, the students were exposed to 5 distinct types of metacognitive strategies over the course of 10 flipped classroom sessions, while the latter group received writing metacognitive strategy-based instruction in a traditional classroom setting. The data collection process involved administering the Second Language Writing Self-Efficacy Scale, two intermediate writing tasks, and the Second Language Writing Anxiety Scale. The collected data were analyzed using a one-way ANCOVA. The findings evidenced considerable enhancement in the writing performance of the students who underwent instruction through flipped classrooms in comparison to those in the traditional classroom refsetting. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that the utilization of writing metacognitive strategies in flipped classrooms resulted in a substantial rise in students' writing self-efficacy, while simultaneously leading to a decrease in their writing anxiety.

Effective instruction and assessment are greatly affected by many factors. The ever-growing literature on assessment outlined some cognitive, social, and emotional factors that directly or indirectly influence the learners' academic achievement. In spite of the rosy literature on assessment, the possible interplay among the Core of Self-assessment (CSA), the Student Evaluation Apprehension (SEA), the Personal Best Goal (PBG), and Self-efficacy (SE) were untouched. To this end, this study intended to propose a model to disclose the association between CSA, SEA, PBG, and SE in higher education. Therefore, the Core of Self-assessment Questionnaire (CSAQ), the Student Evaluation Apprehension Scale (SEAS), the Personal Best Goal Scale (PBGS), and the Self-efficacy Scale (SES) were administered to 467 Iranian EFL university students at MA level. The results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM) indicated that CSA and SEA can contribute to PBG and SE. It means that learners' investment in CSA and positive SEA can flourish and upgrade goal-settings and sense of efficacy beliefs among EFL university students. The implications and suggestions for future avenues are also discussed.

Mothers of children with an intellectual disability often experience challenges that affect their mental health and the relationship with their children. The present study assesses the correlation between the mental health and relationship patterns of mothers of children with an intellectual disability. In this descriptive-correlational study, the mothers of 53 female and 92 male children with an intellectual disability were selected. The data were collected by: (a) a demographic questionnaire; (b) a general health questionnaire; and (c) the assessment scale of mother-child relationship. The results revealed that the acceptance relationship pattern had a significant negative correlation with somatisation (p = 0.006, r = -0.206), anxiety (p = 0.018, r = 0.174), and the general mental health (p = 0.009, r = 0.195). The rejection pattern had a significant positive relationship with depression (p = 0.026, r = 0.163). The present study showed that mothers who had experienced symptoms of anxiety or who had lower general mental health scores were less likely to use acceptance patterns in relationship with their child. Also, mothers who had symptoms of depression significantly rejected the relationship with their child. So, it is suggested that programs should be developed and implemented to maintain mothers' mental health.

This correlational study investigates the relationship between mobile phone use among elementary school students in Iran during the COVID-19 epidemic, and its effect on emotional-behavioural functioning and academic and social competencies. A researcher-devised questionnaire, and the Achenbach Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL)-parental version, was used to assess parental perception of the effects of mobile phone use. Questionnaires were completed by 500 parents, of which 470 were analysed. Findings showed a perceived relationship between the use of cyberspace (smartphone, tablet, games, and social networks) and anxious/depressed, withdrawn, somatic complaints, social problems, thought problems, attention problems, antisocial behaviour, and aggressive behaviour in children. Findings indicate that children's cultural context affects their exposure to online dangers, including receiving threatening images and messages, and cyberbullying; the effects in the current study being lower than the international average. It is recommended that there should be focus on promoting students' media literacy, and parental awareness.

This research set to examine the impacts of collaborative learning (CL), scaffolding instruction, and self-assessment on reading anxiety, reading motivation, and reading comprehension of Iranian EFL learners. Based on Preliminary English Test (PET) results, a sample of 58 students was chosen to represent the study's sample subject out of a total of 71 participants. Running a convenience sampling technique, two equal groups (the control and experimental) were chosen at random from among them. Afterward, both groups completed pretests to gauge their reading motivation, anxiety, and comprehension. Two groups were then treated with a variety of treatments. Learners in the experimental group got scaffolding instruction, self-assessment, and CL as treatment, whereas the control group received typical instructor-based teaching and assessment. Later, both groups took the post-test for reading anxiety, reading comprehension, and reading motivation after the treatment. According to the one-way ANCOVA analysis, the post-test results for the two groups were different. Based on the data analysis, the experimental group outdid the control group in reading anxiety, reading motivation, and reading comprehension. It was concluded that Iranian EFL learners were able to develop both their reading comprehension and reading motivation while experiencing less reading anxiety thanks to CL, self-assessment, and scaffolding instruction. Finally, the conclusions, implications, limitations, and suggestions for further studies were provided.

The important role of willingness to communicate (WTC) in facilitating second language (L2) learning and use has been widely endorsed. However, few studies have examined how teacher support in an L2 class may predict students' L2 WTC. Such a relationship may also be mediated by learners' L2 anxiety, a typical predictor of L2 WTC, and moderated by learners' beliefs about the malleability of their language learning ability, a construct known as growth language mindset. Framed from the Control-Value Theory (Pekrun, in Educ Psychol Rev 18(4):315-341, 2006) and the Language-Mindset Meaning System (Lou and Noels, in: Lamb, Csizér, Henry, Ryan (eds) The Palgrave handbook of motivation for language learning, Palgrave Macmillan, 2019a, System 86:102126, 2019b), this study aimed to investigate the relationships between teacher support, L2 anxiety, growth language mindset, and L2 WTC. The data were collected from 551 English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) learners in Iran and analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results showed that teacher support was directly and positively associated with L2 WTC, and this relationship was significantly mediated by L2 anxiety. The relationship between teacher support and L2 WTC, however, was only significant among learners with medium and high levels of growth language mindset. In addition, growth language mindset also moderated the negative relationship between L2 anxiety and L2 WTC, with this relationship being weaker among learners with higher levels of growth language mindset. Finally, theoretical and pedagogical implications and directions for future research are presented.

This study explored factors that have influenced Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in an extramural digital (ED) context, an ever-increasing second language (L2) communication context. To this end, the researcher interviewed 50 Iranian secondary school language learners. Having used thematic analysis, four broad sources influencing students' L2 WTC were found, such as educational practices (K-12 instruction), interpersonal variables (familiarity with the interlocutors and supportive communities), affective variables (L2 confidence and anxiety in ED context), and social variable (intergroup climate). More importantly, these factors seem to influence each other during communication in the ED contexts. This study can broaden our understanding of how Iranian secondary students use ED contexts to improve their L2 WTC. Understanding these factors can give insight to Iranian policymakers and teachers to promote the L2 WTC of Iranian students in classroom contexts.

Classroom structure includes organizing and designing the class. Based on the theory of achievement, the context and structure of the educational environment affect student's performance, motivation, and emotion. The present study was conducted to find out whether the perception of classroom structure can predict mental health of the students? The design of this research was correlation. Participant includes 287 pupils (140 girls and 147 boys) at Shirazhigh school students, Iran, selected by multistage cluster random sampling method. In this study, the depression, anxiety and stress scale (DASS 21) and perceived classroom structure questionnaire were used. The results of the research were analysed by SPSS_16 and it was shown that, all three dimensions of DASS_21 had a negative correlation with task and authority, while there was a positive correlation with harsh evaluation and DASS_21 subscales. In addition, the component of task predicted stress and total score of DASS, negatively. Harsh evaluation predicted depression, anxiety, stress and total score of DASS, positively. The results of this research consistent with literature showed a significant relationship between perception of classroom structure and mental health of the high school students.

With the shift from negative psychology to positive psychology in the field of applied linguistics, and in alignment with the dynamic turn in this filed, recent studies have tried to micro-map foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) and foreign language enjoyment (FLE) from a dynamic perspective. However, the signature dynamics of learners' FLCA, as a negative emotion, and FLE, as a positive emotion, are yet to be explored. Inspired by Dörnyei (2014), we used the innovative approach of retrodictive qualitative modeling (RQM) to explore the signature dynamics of the two variables. Having identified the learner archetypes of FLE and FLCA via focus-group interviews with a group of teachers regarding their learners' enjoyment and anxiety experiences, we conducted in-depth interviews with one prototypical student from each archetype in order to discover the trends and trajectories leading to a specific outcome or attractor state by tracking and investigating the dynamic occurrences backwards. The results provided us with new insights into the dynamic trends leading to different archetypes of FLE and FLCA as well as the adoptability of the RQM to studies on the dynamics of enjoyment and anxiety.

Reading is an essential skill for second and foreign language learners. It is the heart of all formal learning. Students 'success or failure in reading at early grades resonates throughout the rest of their lives. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between reading anxiety and reading strategy use of Iranian elementary level EFL learners. The participants of this study were fifty students with the age range of 14 to 28 years old, both from female and male of Iranian EFL elementary learners from Beynolmelal English language institute in Tehran. The research design of this study was quantitative. In order to collect data two basic instruments were administered to the participants. The first instrument was a questionnaire that was administered to investigate the participants' level of reading anxiety. The second questionnaire was in addition used to examine the participants' reading strategy use. The first questionnaire was composed of 20 items which were rated by a five-point Likert scale, ranging from five point (strongly agree) to one point (strongly disagree). The second questionnaire consisted of 30 items similarly rated on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from one point (I never or almost never do this) to five points (I always or almost always do this). The correlation coefficient between the reading anxiety and reading strategy use would be determined out with the assistance of IBM SPSS. The findings of this study would be expected to give valuable information to English teachers and material developers to recognize the elementary level learners' anxiety level and improve their reading strategy use in language classes.

English is learned as a foreign language (EFL) in Iran, but because of the limited opportunities to practice or use it in an everyday life environment, it is not easy to make any distinguishable improvement unless the learners are very interested and active ones. When learning in this kind of EFL environment, students are very likely to experience a certain level of language anxiety, which have some damaging effect on language learning acquisition (Chen & Chang, 2004). As such studies about learners' language anxiety are very important not only in improving learners' language proficiency, but also in achieving a targeted syllabus objective or a particular teaching goal. This study aimed to explore the effect of peer feedback on the learners' classroom anxiety specifically focused on speaking ability. To this end, having administered a test of homogeneity among 70 upper-intermediate EFL male students, the researchers finally selected 50 students who were at the same level of English proficiency and were assigned to two groups- the experimental and the control group- each consisting of 25 participants. For collecting the required data, one homogenizing test, one questionnaire, a semi-structured interview and an opinion test were employed in the study. Having done analysis, the results revealed that peer feedback as a technique, has a significant effect on reducing students' anxiety. The qualitative data from the interview also revealed that the students took benefits from the peer feedback process and enjoyed the course.

Critical thinking is crucial to the learning process, cognitive development, and effective information seeking. People can use critical thinking skills to understand, interpret, and assess what they hear or read in order to formulate appropriate reactions or responses. The present study intends to investigate the predictive power of critical thinking skills on critical reading and foreign language reading anxiety of Iranian intermediate EFL learners. To this end, 177 intermediate adults male Iranian EFL learners from Khatam ol-Anbia university took part in the study by completing Michigan test of English language proficiency, the California critical thinking skills test, Critical reading scale and foreign language reading anxiety scale. Using KR-21 and Cronbach's Alpha, the reliability of questionnaires was re-estimated. Data were analyzed through multiple regression analyses. The results of multiple regression indicated there was a statistically significant predictive of critical thinking skills. Additionally, Results indicates that a negative relationship between critical thinking skills and foreign language reading anxiety exists as measured by FLRAS. The quantitative findings gathered through CTS and FLRA scales suggest that when there is an increase in CTS of the students, FLRA decreases and vice versa.

Test anxiety is a serious problem for many college students. This study examines the development and validation of the Online Test Anxiety Inventory (OTAI) to evaluate test anxiety among online students. In this study, the OTAI is developed and administered to a sample of 157 postgraduate online students: 77 males and 80 females, aged 22 to 51 years. To design the initial version of the 38-item, Sarason's Test Anxiety Scale, Abolghsemi's Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) and Spielberger's Test Anxiety Scale were studied, and many interviews were conducted with online learning students who had a high level of test anxiety. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was employed to obtain the Goodness of Fit Indices of the model to the data. The final result is a multidimensional, 18-item OTAI comprised of three factors--online, psychological, and physiological--with a high internal consistency (a = 0.91) and acceptable criterion validity. Concurrent validity was measured by the association of the OTAI and the TAI (r = 0.83).

This study was an attempt to investigate the relationship between EFL teachers' effective classroom management and EFL learners' anxiety and learning strategies. Accordingly, two questionnaires and a checklist were used: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), and Murdoch's checklist. A total of 750 male and female learners and their 30 teachers participated in this study. Once the questionnaires were administered and the checklist was filled, the researchers conducted the relevant descriptive and inferential statistical analyses and the results supported the notion that teachers' classroom management was positively correlated with language learners' learning strategies while it was negatively correlated with their anxiety. Hence, the major implication of this study is that EFL teachers can engage in employing more effective classroom management techniques in order to encourage EFL learners to use more strategies in the process of their learning and at the same time reduce their anxiety.

Increasing EFL learners' willingness to communicate has always been a concern to teachers. This study aimed at investigating the effect of extended wait time in EFL classrooms on the learners' willingness to communicate. In order to carry out this quasi-experimental study, 60 adult EFL learners at a basic level of proficiency in English (CEFR A1 and A2) were chosen to take part. They were first homogenised by Key English Test (KET) and then assigned to two groups of experimental and control. The Willingness to Communicate (WTC) Questionnaire by McIntyre, Baker, Clément, and Conrod (2001) was given to learners before the treatment. During the treatment phase, in the experimental group, the teacher allocated more wait time (3-5 seconds) to the learners when a question was asked, however, in the control group, wait time was limited (less than 3 seconds). After the treatment phase, the WTC questionnaire was administered again to find out if it altered as a result of the treatment. The results show that those learners who were in the experimental group showed higher willingness to communicate compared to lower WTC scores in the limited wait time group participants. The findings can make ELT teachers aware that giving their students more time to think can increase their willingness to communicate in the second language.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between ADHD with internet addiction, depression, anxiety, stress and social phobia. The study was a descriptive-correlation study. Statistical Population of the study was females' students from Kosar university of Bojnord and, among which 327 students were selected by random sampling method. Participants completed ADHD Self-report Questionnaire (ASRS), Internet Addiction Test (IAT), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (Das-21), and Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN). Data were analyzed by applying Pearson correlation coefficient and canonical correlation analysis statistical tests and SPSS version 23. Pearson correlation's results showed that ADHD components (attention deficit and hyperactivity/impulsivity) had positive significant relationships with internet addiction, depression, anxiety, stress and social phobia (p<0.01). In addition, canonical correlation results indicated there were significant relationships between attention deficit and internet addiction, depression, stress and social phobia and also hyperactivity/impulsivity and internet addiction, depression, anxiety and stress. However, there was no significant relationship between attention deficit and anxiety, and hyperactivity/impulsivity and social phobia (p>0.05). ADHD related to many psychological disorders. So it seems to screen students with the disorder and designing some treatment interventions for these students to decrease negative consequences are required.

Learners' personality traits and self-assessment have an essential role in their academic achievement and the well-being of society. Although L2 grit and the core of self-assessment (CSA) have attracted considerable attention in educational research, few studies have focused on the impact of L2 grit on boosting CSA and managing foreign language anxiety (FLA). Drawing upon this existing research gap, the present study set forth to test a structural model of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) university learners' L2 grit, CSA, and FLA. The language-domain-specific grit scale (LDSGS), the core of self-assessments questionnaire (CSAQ), and the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) were administered to 418 Iranian EFL university learners. The findings of structural equation modeling (SEM) reflected the contributions of L2 grit and CSA to overcoming language learners' experienced anxiety. Furthermore, the significant influence of EFL learners' CSA on FLA was concluded. The implications of the findings are to raise learners' awareness of their personality traits and self-assessment that can foster effective language instruction and assessment.

Purpose: The present study investigated the domain-specificity of language mindset with a focus on foreign language (L2) reading mindset. We further examined whether L2 reading mindset could predict several L2 reading-specific outcomes, including L2 reading achievement and L2 reading emotions above and beyond general language mindset. Design/methodology/approach: We gathered data from 489 Iranian university students during regular classroom hours. Participants completed the questionnaire which included L2 reading mindset, general language mindset, L2 anxiety, and L2 enjoyment items. They further took an L2 reading comprehension test. Findings: Results of the confirmatory factor analysis supported a two-factor solution for both L2 reading mindset and general language mindset scales, corresponding to the fixed and growth categories. Furthermore, the findings of hierarchical multiple regressions indicated that adding L2 reading mindsets significantly added to the explained variance in L2 reading anxiety, L2 reading enjoyment, and L2 reading achievement. Originality/value: Findings of this study supported the incremental validity of L2 reading mindset as it could predict L2 reading outcomes above and beyond general language mindset. This finding empirically supports the domain-specificity of language mindset. Therefore, both L2 researchers and teachers should be aware of the unique role that L2 reading mindset plays in L2 reading skill.

This study investigated the effect of synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) text chat and voice chat on Iranian EFL learners' oral proficiency and anxiety. To this aim, 81 Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners were selected from among 125 students at private English language institutes. The selected participants were divided into two experimental groups (synchronous text chat group and synchronous voice chat group) and a control group; each consisting of 27 pre-intermediate learners of English as a foreign language. Over a 6-week period, the participants in the experimental groups engaged in 60-75-minute-long chat sessions in dyads guided by a total of 10 tasks. The data were collected through pre-anxiety and post-anxiety scales and speaking tests. The analysis of the data revealed that both experimental groups had better performance on their post-test compared to their pretest scores, whereas there was a decrease in the anxiety levels only for the text chat group. The practical implications of the study and suggestions for further research are presented.